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== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

There was a long and a time-honored tradition in ancient India where philosophers and thinkers met to discuss metaphysical issues over which there were multiple views. There are detailed narrations of such discussions, debates and dialogues recorded in Chandogya Upanishad, Brhadaranyaka Upanishad and Prashna Upanishad. The other early texts such as Aitareya Brahmana, Kathopanishad and others use terms like : tarka (reasoning), Vada (debate), Yukti (sustained arguments), Prameya (object of knowledge), Pramana (proof), Nirnaya (ascertainment) etc. which later became the principal terminologies of the Nyaya School. It is also said that the idioms of inquiry (Anveshiki) dealing with the theory of reasons (Hetu-vidya or Hetu-shastra) were mentioned in Manu-samhita and Panini’s Ashtadhyayi.<ref name=":3" />

There was a long and a time-honored tradition in ancient India where philosophers and thinkers met to discuss metaphysical issues over which there were multiple views. There are detailed narrations of such discussions, debates and dialogues recorded in Chandogya Upanishad, Brhadaranyaka Upanishad and Prashna Upanishad. The other early texts such as Aitareya Brahmana, Kathopanishad and others use terms like : tarka (reasoning), Vada (debate), Yukti (sustained arguments), Prameya (object of knowledge), Pramana (proof), Nirnaya (ascertainment) etc. which later became the principal terminologies of the Nyaya School. It is also said that the idioms of inquiry (Anveshiki) dealing with the theory of reasons (Hetu-vidya or Hetu-shastra) were mentioned in Manu samhita and Panini’s Ashtadhyayi.<ref name=":3" />

As Bimal Krishna Matilal observes in The Character of Logic in India:<blockquote>''.. The intellectual climate in India was bristling with questions such as: “Is there an atma different from sharira ?”; “Is the world (loka) eternal?”; ”What is the meaning, goal, or purpose of life?”; and, “Is renunciation preferable to enjoyment?” etc. which were of major concern.'' </blockquote>As teachers and thinkers argued about such matters, there arose a gradual awareness of the characteristics or patterns of correct, acceptable and sound reasoning. There were also concerns to evolve the norms to distinguish sound reasoning from pseudo-reasoning (hetvabhasa) which is unacceptable.<ref name=":0">Bimal Krishna Matilal; Jonardon Ganeri; Heeraman Tiwari (1998). ''The Character of Logic in India''. SUNY Press. p. 31. <nowiki>ISBN 9780791437407</nowiki>.</ref>  

As Bimal Krishna Matilal observes in his work 'The Character of Logic in India':<blockquote>''.. The intellectual climate in India was bristling with questions such as: “Is there an atma different from sharira ?”; “Is the world (loka) eternal?”; ”What is the meaning, goal, or purpose of life?”; and, “Is renunciation preferable to enjoyment?” etc. which were of major concern.'' </blockquote>As teachers and thinkers argued about such matters, there arose a gradual awareness of the characteristics or patterns of correct, acceptable and sound reasoning. There were also concerns to evolve the norms to distinguish sound reasoning from pseudo-reasoning (hetvabhasa) which is unacceptable.<ref name=":0">Bimal Krishna Matilal; Jonardon Ganeri; Heeraman Tiwari (1998). ''The Character of Logic in India''. SUNY Press. p. 31. <nowiki>ISBN 9780791437407</nowiki>.</ref>  

Gradually, the notions of ‘good’ and acceptable debates took shape as distinct from wrong and ugly arguments. That gave rise to the development of a branch of study dealing with theories of reasoning and logic (Hetu-vidya or Hetu shastra). Subsequently, manuals came to be written for conduct of proper and successful debates (Tarka vidya or Vada vidya). These manuals included instructions and learning methods for the guidance of aspiring debaters. The earliest known text of that genre was Tantra-yukti (structured argument) compiled to systemize debates conducted in learned councils (Parishad).

Gradually, the notions of ‘good’ and acceptable debate took shape as distinct from wrong and ugly arguments. That gave rise to the development of a branch of study dealing with theories of reasoning and logic (Hetu vidya or Hetu shastra). Subsequently, manuals came to be written for conduct of proper and successful debates (Tarka vidya or Vada vidya). These manuals included instructions and learning methods for the guidance of aspiring debaters. The earliest known text of that genre was Tantrayukti (structured argument) compiled to systemize debates conducted in learned councils (Parishad).

Debates and arguments then came to be recognized both as art of logical reasoning (Tarka-vidya) and science of causes (Hetu-shastra) following the path of a well-disciplined method of inquiry (anvikshiki) testing scriptural knowledge by further scrutiny. Therefore, scholars belonging to various Schools of philosophy were imparted training in Tarka–vidya: the art and skill of conducting impressive successful debates and disputations (Sambhasha or Vada vidhi) in learned assemblies (parishad). Their training modules included,

Debates and arguments then came to be recognized both as art of logical reasoning (Tarka vidya) and science of causes (Hetu shastra) following the path of a well-disciplined method of inquiry (anvikshiki) testing scriptural knowledge by further scrutiny. Therefore, scholars belonging to various schools of philosophy were imparted training in Tarka vidya: the art and skill of conducting impressive successful debates and disputations (Sambhasha or Vada vidhi) in learned assemblies (parishad). Their training modules included,

# Methods of presenting arguments as per a logically structured format

# Methods of presenting arguments as per a logically structured format

# Ways to stoutly defend one's thesis by means of genuine criteria of knowledge (Pramana)  

# Ways to stoutly defend one's thesis by means of genuine criteria of knowledge (Pramana)  

# To attack the opponent’s thesis by means of indirect arguments (Tarka)

# To attack the opponent’s thesis by means of indirect arguments (Tarka)

# Estimating the strengths and weaknesses of arguments of either side

# Estimating the strengths and weaknesses of arguments of either side

# Establishing one’s own points while setting aside those of the opponent.

# Establishing one’s own points while setting aside those of the opponent  

They were also trained for handling different types of challenges, such as:  

They were also trained for handling different types of challenges, such as:  

# How to vanquish a person of blazing fame  

# How to vanquish a person of blazing fame  

== व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology ==

== व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology ==

Shabdakalpadruma explains Sambhasha as Sambhashana सम्भाषा सम्भाषणम् ॥<ref name=":10">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80 Shabdakalpadruma]</ref> ''sambhāṣā sambhāṣaṇam ॥''

Shabdakalpadruma explains Sambhasha as Sambhashana. It says, <blockquote>सम्भाषा सम्भाषणम् ॥<ref name=":10">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80 Shabdakalpadruma]</ref> ''sambhāṣā sambhāṣaṇam ॥''</blockquote>And Sambhashana is,<blockquote>सम्भाषणं कथनम् । आलापनम् ।<ref name=":10" /> ''sambhāṣaṇaṁ kathanam । ālāpanam ।'' </blockquote>Vachaspatya highlights 2 aspects of conversing. That is,

 

And Sambhashana is <blockquote>सम्भाषणं कथनम् । आलापनम् ।<ref name=":10" /> ''sambhāṣaṇaṁ kathanam । ālāpanam ।'' </blockquote>Vachaspatya highlights 2 aspects of conversing. That is,

# सम्यक्कथने (''samyakkathane'' | approprite speech/conversation)

# सम्यक्कथने (''samyakkathane'' | approprite speech/conversation)

# परस्परकथने च (''parasparakathane'' | conversing with each other)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF Vachaspatya]</ref>

# परस्परकथने च (''parasparakathane'' | conversing with each other)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF Vachaspatya]</ref>