Difference between revisions of "Sutras (सूत्राणि)"

Latest revision as of 22:31, 22 June 2020

Sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short aphoristic statements.^[1]^[2] Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.^[3]^[1]

Indian Philosophy has six Aastika schools called the Shad-darsana--the six ways of seeing things, the six different schools of thought. The six schools of philosophy are six demonstrations of Truth. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e. the one great Rishi, who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras.^[4]

The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras.^[4]

Every school of Hindu philosophy, Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.^[2]^[5]

Etymology

The word sūtra (Sanskrit: सूत्र, Pali: sūtta, Ardha Magadhi: sūya) means "string, thread".^[3]^[1] The root of the word is siv, that which sews and holds things together.^[3]^[6] The word is related to sūci (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",^[7] and sūnā (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".^[3]

Detailed Discussion

अल्पाक्षरं असंदिग्धं सारवत्‌ विश्वतोमुखम्‌।

अस्तोभं अनवद्यं च सूत्रं सूत्र विदो विदुः॥

A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number of letters, without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all meanings, without any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature.^[4]

The Sutrakara or the composer of the aphorisms is said to be very pleased if he is able to reduce one letter in his abstruse Sutra. The best example of the greatest, the tersest and the most perfect of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi composed by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from whom all others seem to have borrowed the method of composition. The Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of knowledge in short assertions suitable to be kept in memory at all times.^[4]

The six Vedangas and the six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature of the world. In addition to these, there are later compositions like the Narada-Bhakti Sutras, the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras, etc.^[4]

Each set of Sutras has got its Bhashya, Vritti, Vaartika, Vyakhyana (व्याख्यानम्) or Tika and Tippani.

Bhashya

A Bhashya (Sanskrit: भाष्य) is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara.^[4]

The best and the exemplary Bhashya in Sanskrit literature is the one written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini. This Bhashya is so important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and its celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali is the father of Bhashyakaras.^[4]

Vritti

Sadvrittih sannibandhana

Vritti is a short gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as extensively as in a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana's Vritti on the Brahma Sutras.^[4]

Varttika

Uktanuktaduruktanam

Chinta yatra pravartate

Tam grantham varttikam prahuh

Varttikajnavichakshanah

A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is said and left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya, and the ways of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein, are given. Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini's Sutras, of Suresvara on Sankara's Upanishad Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta on the Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa.^[4]

Vyakhyana or Tika

A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit Sahitya Sastra.^[4]

An Anu-Vyakhyana—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An Anuvada is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. Tika is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankara's Brahmasutra-Bhashya.^[4]

Tippani

Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the original. Examples are Kaiyata's gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Nagojibhatta's gloss on Kaiyata's gloss, or Appayya's gloss on Arnalananda's gloss on the Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra.^[4]

Post-vedic sutras

Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of Hindu philosophy include:

Brahma Sutras (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.^[8] The text contains 555 sutras in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and adhyatmik ideas in the Upanishads.^[9] It is one of the foundational texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy.^[9]
Yoga Sutras – contains 196 sutras on Yoga including the eight limbs and meditation. The Yoga Sutras were compiled around 400 CE by Patanjali, taking materials about yoga from older traditions.^[10] The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and adhyatmik traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages.^[11]
Samkhya Sutra – is a collection of major Sanskrit texts of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on dualism of Kapila.^[12] It consists of six books with 526 sutras.

Vaisheshika Sutra - is the foundational text of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, dated to between 4th-century BCE to 1st-century BCE, authored by Kanada.^[13] With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic naturalism, epistemology, and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of Dharma; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."^[13]^[14]
Nyaya Sutras – is an ancient text of Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between 6th-century BCE to 2nd-century CE.^[15]^[16] It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.^[15] The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.^[17]^[18] These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book.^[15] The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge.^[15] Book two is about pramana (epistemology), book three is about prameya or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.^[15]

Mimamsa Sutras - is the foundational text of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini, and it emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, that is rituals and religious works as means to salvation.^[19] The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the Nyaya school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology.^[19] An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 sutras.^[19]
Dharma-sutras - of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vāsiṣṭha
Artha-sutras - the Niti Sutras of Chanakya and Somadeva are treatises on governance, law, economics, and politics. Versions of Chanakya Niti Sutras have been found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.^[20] The more comprehensive work of Chanakya, the Arthashastra is itself composed in many parts, in sutra style, with the first Sutra of the ancient book acknowledging that it is a compilation of Artha-knowledge from previous scholars.^[21]

References

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3, pages 249
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0, pages 54–55
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 ^3.3 Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for sutra, page 1241
↑ ^4.00 ^4.01 ^4.02 ^4.03 ^4.04 ^4.05 ^4.06 ^4.07 ^4.08 ^4.09 ^4.10 ^4.11 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51
↑ White, David Gordon (2014). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. pp. 194–195. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
↑ MacGregor, Geddes (1989). Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy (1st ed.). New York: Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-019-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
↑ suci Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
↑ NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30
↑ ^9.0 ^9.1 James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8, page 124
↑ Wujastyk, Dominik (2011), The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice", Princeton University Press, p. 33<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
↑ White, David Gordon (2014). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. p. xvi. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
↑ Samkhya Pravachana Sutra NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i
↑ ^13.0 ^13.1 Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4, pages 334–335
↑ Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-94-3, pages 98–107
↑ ^15.0 ^15.1 ^15.2 ^15.3 ^15.4 Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-94-3, page 129
↑ B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.
↑ Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), Nyaya Sutras of Gautama (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1264-2
↑ SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0748-8
↑ ^19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-94-3, pages 67–86
↑ SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2, pages 586–587
↑ Thomas Trautman (2012), Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth, Penguin, ISBN 978-0-670-08527-9, pages 16–17, 61, 64, 75

[winternitz249-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3, pages 249

[gavinfloodaith54-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0, pages 54–55

[monierwilliamssutra-3] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 ^3.3 Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for sutra, page 1241

[:0-4] 4.00 ^4.01 ^4.02 ^4.03 ^4.04 ^4.05 ^4.06 ^4.07 ^4.08 ^4.09 ^4.10 ^4.11 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51

[5] White, David Gordon (2014). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. pp. 194–195. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>

[6] MacGregor, Geddes (1989). Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy (1st ed.). New York: Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-019-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>

[7] suci Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany

[nvisaeva35-8] NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30

[jamesloch124-9] 9.0 ^9.1 James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8, page 124

[10] Wujastyk, Dominik (2011), The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice", Princeton University Press, p. 33<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>

[11] White, David Gordon (2014). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton University Press. p. xvi. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>

[12] Samkhya Pravachana Sutra NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i

[klausklos335-13] 13.0 ^13.1 Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4, pages 334–335

[14] Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-94-3, pages 98–107

[jfowlerpor129-15] 15.0 ^15.1 ^15.2 ^15.3 ^15.4 Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-94-3, page 129

[16] B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.

[17] Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), Nyaya Sutras of Gautama (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1264-2

[18] SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0748-8

[jeanfowler67-19] 19.0 ^19.1 ^19.2 Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-898723-94-3, pages 67–86

[20] SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2, pages 586–587

[21] Thomas Trautman (2012), Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth, Penguin, ISBN 978-0-670-08527-9, pages 16–17, 61, 64, 75

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-{{about|texts in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism|other uses}}
+Sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short [[Aphorism|aphoristic]] statements.<ref name="winternitz249" /><ref name="gavinfloodaith54">Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-43878-0}}, pages 54–55</ref> Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra">[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1200/mw__1274.html Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry for ''sutra'', page 1241]</ref><ref name="winternitz249" />
-[[File:A Sanskrit manuscript of Lotus Sutra in South Turkestan Brahmi script.jpg|thumb|360px|A [[Sanskrit]] manuscript page of [[Lotus Sutra]] (Buddhism) from South Turkestan in [[Brahmi script]].]]
-[[File:Kalpa sutra-Jina's mother dreams c1465.jpg|thumb|360px|A manuscript page from Kalpa Sutra (Jainism)]]
-A '''sutra''' ([[IAST]]: ''sūtra'' {{lang|sa|[[wikt:सूत्र|सूत्र]]}}) is a Sanskrit word that means "string, thread".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra>Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Entry for [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1200/mw__1274.html ''sutra''], page 1241</ref> In Indian literary traditions, it also refers to an [[aphorism]] or a collection of [[aphorisms]] in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a condensed manual or text.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/> ''sutras'' are a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts found in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref name=winternitz249/>
-In Hinduism, ''sutra'' denotes a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short [[aphorism|aphoristic]] statements.<ref name=winternitz249/><ref name=gavinfloodaith54>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 54-55</ref> Each ''sutra'' is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/> The oldest sutras of Hinduism are found in the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layers of the [[Vedas]].<ref name=maxmullerhas108/><ref name=winternitz252/> Every school of [[Hindu philosophy]], Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law and social ethics developed respective ''sutras'', which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.<ref name=gavinfloodaith54/><ref name=maxmullerhas74/><ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0691143774|pages=194–195}}</ref>
+Indian Philosophy has six Aastika schools called the [[Shad Darshanas|Shad-darsana]]--the six ways of seeing things, the six different schools of thought. The six schools of philosophy are six demonstrations of Truth. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its '''Sutrakara''', i.e. the one great Rishi, who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in '''short aphorisms or Sutras'''.<ref name=":0">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51</ref>
-In Buddhism, sutra or sutta refers mostly to [[Buddhist texts#canonical texts|canonical scriptures]], many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Pali form of the word, sutta, is used exclusively to refer to the scriptures of the early [[Pali Canon]], the only texts recognized by [[Theravada]] Buddhism as canonical.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
+The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras.<ref name=":0" />
-In [[Jainism]], sutra or suya refers to canonical sermons of [[Mahavira]] contained in the [[Jain Agamas]] and to some later (post-canonical) normative texts.<ref name=kelting111/><ref name=jainigasjd32/>
+Every school of [[Hindu philosophy]], Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.<ref name="gavinfloodaith54" /><ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-14377-4|pages=194–195}}</ref>
 ==Etymology==
-[[File:Birch bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691.jpg|thumb|240px|A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of ancient Panini Sutra, a treatise on grammar,<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/150/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 150-152</ref> found in Kashmir.]]
+The word ''sūtra'' ([[Sanskrit]]: सूत्र, [[Pali]]: ''sūtta'', [[Ardha Magadhi]]: ''sūya'') means "string, thread".<ref name="monierwilliamssutra" /><ref name="winternitz249">M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pages 249</ref> The root of the word is ''siv'', that which sews and holds things together.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra" /><ref>{{cite book|last=MacGregor|first=Geddes|title=Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy|year=1989|publisher=Paragon House|location=New York|isbn=1-55778-019-6|edition=1st}}</ref> The word is related to ''sūci'' (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+suci&trans=Translate&direction=AU suci] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> and ''sūnā'' (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".<ref name="monierwilliamssutra" />
-The word ''sutra'' ([[Sanskrit]]: सूत्र, [[Pali]]: ''sutta'', [[Ardha Magadhi]]: ''sūya'') means "string, thread".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249>M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 249</ref> The root of the word is ''siv'', that which sews and holds things together.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref>{{cite book|last=MacGregor|first=Geddes|title=Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy|year=1989|publisher=Paragon House|location=New York|isbn=1557780196|edition=1st}}</ref> The word is related to ''suci'' (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+suci&trans=Translate&direction=AU suci] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> and ''suna'' (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/>
+== Detailed Discussion ==
+: '''अल्पाक्षरं असंदिग्धं सारवत्‌ विश्वतोमुखम्‌।'''
+: '''अस्तोभं अनवद्यं च सूत्रं सूत्र विदो विदुः॥'''
+A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number of letters, without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all meanings, without any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature.<ref name=":0" />
-In the context of literature, ''sutra'' means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the "teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar or any field of knowledge" can be woven.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/>
+The Sutrakara or the composer of the aphorisms is said to be very pleased if he is able to reduce one letter in his abstruse Sutra. The best example of the greatest, the tersest and the most perfect of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi composed by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from whom all others seem to have borrowed the method of composition. The Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of knowledge in short assertions suitable to be kept in memory at all times.<ref name=":0" />
-A ''sutra'' is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words".<ref name=winternitz249/> A collection of ''sutras'' becomes a text, and this is also called ''sutra'' (often capitalized in Western literature).<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/>
+The six Vedangas and the six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature of the world. In addition to these, there are later compositions like the Narada-Bhakti Sutras, the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras, etc.<ref name=":0" />
-A ''sutra'' is different from other components such as ''Shlokas'', ''Anuvyakhayas'' and ''Vyakhyas'' found in ancient Indian literature.<ref name=maxmullerhasl110/> A ''sutra'' is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message,<ref>{{cite book|author=Irving L. Finkel |title=Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B20NAQAAMAAJ |year=2007|publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=978-0-7141-1153-7 |pages=203 }}</ref> while a ''[[Shloka]]'' is a verse that conveys the complete message and is designed to certain rules of musical meter,<ref>{{cite book|author= Kale Pramod |title=The Theatric Universe: (a Study of the Natyasastra) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yRdNBKIHnjkC |year=1974|publisher=Popular|isbn=978-81-7154-118-8 |pages=8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lewis Rowell |title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-73034-9 |pages=135 }}</ref> a ''Anuvyakhaya'' is an explanation of the reviewed text, while a ''Vyakhya'' is a comment by the reviewer.<ref name=maxmullerhasl110>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/110/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 110-111</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&tinput=vyakhya&trans=Translate व्याख्या], Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref>
+Each set of Sutras has got its [[Bhashya]], Vritti, Vaartika, [[Vyakhyana (व्याख्यानम्)]] or Tika and Tippani.
+=== Bhashya ===
+A Bhashya (Sanskrit: भाष्य) is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara.<ref name=":0" />
-==History==
+The best and the exemplary Bhashya in Sanskrit literature is the one written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini. This Bhashya is so important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and its celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali is the father of Bhashyakaras.<ref name=":0" />
-{| class="wikitable floatright" align=center style = " background: transparent; "  |+ Sutra known from Vedic era<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/198/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 199</ref>
+=== Vritti ===
-|-style="text-align: center;"  | width=80px style="background: #ffad66;" | Veda
+Sadvrittih sannibandhana
-  | width= 300px | Sutras
-|-style="text-align: left;"  | width=80px | [[Rigveda]]
-  | width= 300px | Asvalayana Sutra (§), Sankhayana Sutra (§), Saunaka Sutra (¶)
-|-style="text-align: left;"  | width=80px | [[Samaveda]]
-  | width= 300px | Latyayana Sutra (§), Drahyayana Sutra (§), Nidana Sutra (§), Pushpa Sutra (§), Anustotra Sutra (§)<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/210/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 210</ref>
-|-style="text-align: left;"  | width=80px | [[Yajurveda]]
-  | width= 320px | Manava Sutra (§), Bharadvaja Sutra (¶), Vadhuna Sutra (¶), Vaikhanasa Sutra (¶), Laugakshi Sutra (¶), Maitra Sutra (¶), Katha Sutra (¶), Varaha Sutra (¶)
-|-style="text-align: left;"  | width=80px | [[Atharvaveda]]
-  | width= 320px | Kusika Sutra (§)
-|-style="text-align: center;"  |colspan="2" |¶: only quotes survive; §: text survives
-|}
-Sutras first appear in the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layer of Vedic literature.<ref name=winternitz252>M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 251-253</ref> They grow in the Vedangas, such as the Shrauta Sutras and Kalpa Sutras.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/> These were designed so that they can be easily communicated from a teacher to student, memorized by the recipient for discussion or self-study or as reference.<ref name=winternitz249/>
-A sutra by itself is condensed shorthand, and the threads of syllable are difficult to decipher or understand, without associated scholarly [[Bhasya]] or deciphering commentary that fills in the "[[Warp and woof|woof]]".<ref>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, ISBN 978-1519117786, page 26</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/x8771j1117448987/ |author1=Tubb, Gary A. |author2=Emery B. Boose |title=Scholastic Sanskrit, A Manual for Students |publisher=Springerlink.com |date= |accessdate=2013-03-16}}</ref>
+Vritti is a short  gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as extensively as in a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana's Vritti on the Brahma Sutras.<ref name=":0" />
+=== Varttika ===
+Uktanuktaduruktanam
-The oldest manuscripts that have survived into the modern era, that contain extensive sutras, are part of the [[Vedas]] dated to be from the late 2nd millennium BCE through mid 1st-millennium BCE.<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/314/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 314-319</ref> The [[Aitareya Aranyaka]] for example, states Winternitz, is primarily a collection of ''sutras''.<ref name=winternitz252/> Their use and ancient roots are attested by sutras being mentioned in larger genre of ancient non-Vedic Hindu literature called ''Gatha'', ''Narashansi'', ''Itihasa'' and ''Akhyana'' (songs, legends, epics and stories).<ref name=mullersutras40>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/40/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 40-45, 71-77</ref>
+Chinta yatra pravartate
-In the history of Indian literature, large compilations of sutras, in diverse fields of knowledge, have been traced to the period from 600 BCE to 200 BCE (mostly after Buddha and Mahavira), and this has been called the "sutras period".<ref name=mullersutras40/><ref>Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195644418, page 206</ref> This period followed the more ancient ''Chhandas period'', ''Mantra period'' and ''Brahmana period''.<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/70/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 70</ref>
+Tam grantham varttikam prahuh
-{{pull quote|
+Varttikajnavichakshanah
-(The ancient) Indian pupil learnt these '''sutras''' of grammar, philosophy or theology by the same mechanical method which fixes in our (modern era) minds the alphabet and the multiplication table.
-|author=[[Max Muller]]|source=History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature<ref name=maxmullerhas74>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/74/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 74</ref>|width=72%}}
-==Hinduism==
+A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is said and left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya, and the ways of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein, are given. Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini's Sutras, of Suresvara on Sankara's Upanishad Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta on the Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa.<ref name=":0" />
-{{further|Hindu texts}}
+=== Vyakhyana or Tika ===
-{{Hinduism}}
+A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit Sahitya Sastra.<ref name=":0" />
-Some of the earliest surviving specimen of ''sutras'' of Hinduism are found in ''Anupada Sutras'' and ''Nidana Sutras'',<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 108</ref> the former distills the [[epistemology|epistemic]] debate whether Sruti or [[Smriti]] or neither must be considered more reliable source of knowledge,<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/100/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 101-108</ref> while the latter distills the rules of musical meters for [[Samaveda]] chants and songs.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/146/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 147</ref>
-A larger collection of ancient sutra literature in Hinduism corresponds to the six Vedangas, or six limbs of the [[Vedas]].<ref name=maxmullerhas108/> These are six subjects that were called in the Vedas as necessary for complete mastery of the Vedas. The six subjects with their own ''sutras'' were "pronunciation ([[Siksha|Shiksha]]), meter ([[Chandas]]), grammar ([[Vyakarana]]), explanation of words ([[Nirukta]]), time keeping through astronomy ([[Jyotisha]]) and ceremonial rituals (Kalpa).<ref name=maxmullerhas108/> The first two, states Max Muller, were considered in the Vedic era to be necessary for reading the Veda, the second two for understanding it, and the last two for deploying the Vedic knowledge at [[yajna]]s (fire rituals).<ref name=maxmullerhas108>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 108-113</ref> The ''sutras'' corresponding to these are embedded inside the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layers of the Vedas. Taittiriya Aranyaka, for example in Book 7, embeds sutras for accurate pronunciation after the terse phrases "On Letters", "On Accents", "On Quantity", "On Delivery" and "On Euphonic Laws".<ref name=maxmullerhas113>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 113-115</ref>
+An '''Anu-Vyakhyana'''—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An '''Anuvada''' is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. '''Tika''' is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankara's Brahmasutra-Bhashya.<ref name=":0" />
+=== Tippani ===
+Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the original. Examples are Kaiyata's gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Nagojibhatta's gloss on Kaiyata's gloss, or Appayya's gloss on Arnalananda's gloss on the Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra.<ref name=":0" />
+===Post-vedic sutras===
+Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] include:
+* [[Brahma Sutras]] (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.<ref name="nvisaeva35">NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1281-7}}, page 35 with footnote 30</ref> The text contains 555 ''sutras'' in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and adhyatmik ideas in the [[Upanishads]].<ref name="jamesloch124">James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 124</ref> It is one of the foundational texts of the [[Vedānta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref name="jamesloch124" />
+* [[Yoga Sutras]] – contains 196 sutras on [[Yoga]] including the eight limbs and meditation. The ''Yoga Sutras'' were compiled around 400 CE by [[Patanjali]], taking materials about yoga from older traditions.<ref>{{Citation | last =Wujastyk| first =Dominik | year =2011 | title =The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice" | publisher =Princeton University Press|page=33}}</ref> The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and adhyatmik traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages.<ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-14377-4|page=xvi}}</ref>
+* [[Samkhya Sutra]] – is a collection of major [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] texts of the [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] of Kapila.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Samkhya Pravachana Sutra] NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i</ref> It consists of six books with 526 sutras.
-The fourth and often the last layer of philosophical, speculative text in the Vedas, the Upanishads, too have embedded sutras such as those found in the [[Taittiriya Upanishad]].<ref name=maxmullerhas113/>
+* [[Vaisheshika Sutra]] - is the foundational text of the [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, dated to between 4th-century BCE to 1st-century BCE, authored by Kanada.<ref name="klausklos335" /> With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], epistemology, and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of [[Dharma]]; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."<ref name="klausklos335">Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, pages 334–335</ref><ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, pages 98–107</ref>
+* [[Nyaya Sutras]] – is an ancient text of [[Nyaya]] school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between 6th-century BCE to 2nd-century CE.<ref name="jfowlerpor129">Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, page 129</ref><ref>B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.</ref> It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.<ref name="jfowlerpor129" /> The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.<ref>Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), ''Nyaya Sutras of Gautama'' (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1264-2}}</ref><ref>SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0748-8}}</ref> These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book.<ref name="jfowlerpor129" /> The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge.<ref name="jfowlerpor129" /> Book two is about ''[[pramana]]'' (epistemology), book three is about ''prameya'' or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.<ref name="jfowlerpor129" />
-The compendium of ancient Vedic sutra literature that has survived, in full or fragments, includes the [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa Sutras]], [[Smarta Sutras]], [[Srauta Sutras]], [[Dharma Sutras]], [[Grhya Sutras]] and [[Sulba Sutras]].<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 108-145</ref> Other fields for which ancient sutras are known include etymology, phonetics and grammar.
+* [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa Sutras]] - is the foundational text of the [[Mimamsa]] school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini, and it emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, that is rituals and religious works as means to salvation.<ref name="jeanfowler67">Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, pages 67–86</ref> The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the [[Nyaya]] school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology.<ref name="jeanfowler67" /> An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 ''sutras''.<ref name="jeanfowler67" />
+* Dharma-sutras - of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vāsiṣṭha
-===Post-vedic sutras===
+* Artha-sutras - the Niti Sutras of Chanakya and Somadeva are treatises on governance, law, economics, and politics. Versions of Chanakya Niti Sutras have been found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.<ref>SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0063-2}}, pages 586–587</ref> The more comprehensive work of Chanakya, the [[Arthashastra]] is itself composed in many parts, in ''sutra'' style, with the first Sutra of the ancient book acknowledging that it is a compilation of [[Artha]]-knowledge from previous scholars.<ref>Thomas Trautman (2012), Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-670-08527-9}}, pages 16–17, 61, 64, 75</ref>
-{{Quote box |width=20em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right
-|quote='''Example of sutras from [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]]'''<br>
-<poem>
-अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा ॥१.१.१॥
-जन्माद्यस्य यतः ॥ १.१.२॥
-शास्त्रयोनित्वात् ॥ १.१.३॥
-तत्तुसमन्वयात् ॥ १.१.४॥
-ईक्षतेर्नाशब्दम् ॥ १.१.५॥
-</poem>
-|source =— Brahma Sutra 1.1.1-1.1.5<ref>{{cite book  | last = Radhakrishna  | first =  Sarvepalli  | authorlink = Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan  | title = Brahma Sutra, The Philosophy of Spiritual Life  | url = https://archive.org/stream/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life/Radhakrishnan-Brahma.Sutra-The.Philosophy.of.Spiritual.Life#page/n225/mode/2up  | year = 1960  | pages = 227–232}}<br>George Adams (1993), The Structure and Meaning of Bādarāyaṇa's Brahma Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120809314, page 38</ref><ref>'''Original Sanskrit:''' [https://archive.org/stream/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf/Brahma.Sutra.Bhashya.By.Adi.Shankaracharya.Sanskrit#page/n0/mode/2up Brahma sutra Bhasya] Adi Shankara, [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/brahma_suutra.pdf Archive 2]</ref>}}
-Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] include:
-* [[Brahma Sutras]] (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.<ref name=nvisaeva35>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30</ref> The text contains 555 ''sutras'' in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the [[Upanishads]].<ref name=jamesloch124>James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 124</ref> It is one of the foundational texts of the [[Vedānta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref name=jamesloch124/>
-* [[Yoga Sutras]] – contains 196 sutras on [[Yoga]] including the eight limbs and meditation. The ''Yoga Sutras'' were compiled around 400 CE by [[Patanjali]], taking materials about yoga from older traditions.<ref>{{Citation | last =Wujastyk| first =Dominik | year =2011 | title =The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice" | publisher =Princeton University Press|page=33}}</ref> The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and spiritual traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages.<ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0691143774|page=xvi}}</ref>
-* [[Samkhya Sutra]] – is a collection of major [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] texts of the [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on [[dualism]] of Kapila.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Samkhya Pravachana Sutra] NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i</ref> It consists of six books with 526 sutras.
-{{Quote box
- |quote  =
-<poem>
-Without explanation:
-Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This different from body, because heterogeneous. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it is expressed by means of the sixth. (Sutra 3, Book 6)
-With Vijnanabhiksu's explanatory [[bhasya]] filled in:
-Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not, since we are aware of "I think", because there is no evidence to defeat this. Therefore all that is to be done is to discriminate it from things in general. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This soul is different from the body because of heterogeneous or complete difference between the two. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it, the Soul, is expressed by means of the sixth case, for the learned express it by the possessive case in such examples as 'this is my body', 'this my understanding'; for the possessive case would be unaccountable if there were absolute non-difference, between the body or the like, and the Soul to which it is thus attributed as a possession. (Sutra 3, Book 6)
-</poem>
- |author = – [[Kapila]] in ''Samkhya Sutra''
- |source = Translated by James Robert Ballantyne<ref>Kapila (James Robert Ballantyne, Translator, 1865), {{Google books|mOY9AAAAcAAJ|The Sāmkhya aphorisms of Kapila}}, pages 156-157</ref><ref>Max Muller et al (1999 Reprint), Studies in Buddhism, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 8-120612264, page 10 with footnote</ref>
- |width  = 80%
- |align  = center
-}}
-* [[Vaisheshika Sutra]] - is the foundational text of the [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, dated to between 4th-century BCE to 1st-century BCE, authored by Kanada.<ref name=klausklos335/> With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], epistemology and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of [[Dharma]]; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."<ref name=klausklos335>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 334-335</ref><ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, pages 98-107</ref>
-* [[Nyaya Sutras]] – is an ancient text of [[Nyaya]] school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between 6th-century BCE to 2nd-century CE.<ref name=jfowlerpor129>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, page 129</ref><ref>B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.</ref> It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology and metaphysics.<ref>Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), ''Nyaya Sutras of Gautama'' (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass,  ISBN 978-81-208-1264-2</ref><ref>SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807488</ref> These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> Book two is about ''[[pramana]]'' (epostemology), book three is about ''prameya'' or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/>
-{{Quote box
- |quote  =
-<poem>
-Reality is truth (''prāma'', foundation of correct knowledge), and what is true is so, irrespective of whether we know it is, or are aware of that truth.
-</poem>
- |author = – Akṣapada Gautama in ''[[Nyaya]] Sutra''
- |source = Translated by Jeaneane D Fowler<ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, page 130</ref>
- |width  = 80%
- |align  = center
-}}
-* [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa Sutras]] - is the foundational text of the [[Mimamsa]] school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini, and it emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, that is rituals and religious works as means to salvation.<ref name=jeanfowler67>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, pages 67-86</ref> The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the [[Nyaya]] school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology.<ref name=jeanfowler67/> An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 ''sutras''.<ref name=jeanfowler67/>
-* Dharma-sutras - of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana and Vāsiṣṭha
-* Artha-sutras - the Niti Sutras of Chanakya and Somadeva are treatises on governance, law, economics and politics. Versions of Chanakya Niti Sutras have been found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.<ref>SC Banerji (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800632, pages 586-587</ref> The more comprehensive work of Chanakya, the [[Arthashastra]] is itself composed in many parts, in ''sutra'' style, with the first Sutra of the ancient book acknowledging that it is a compilation of [[Artha]]-knowledge from previous scholars.<ref>Thomas Trautman (2012), Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth, Penguin, ISBN 978-0670085279, pages 16-17, 61, 64, 75</ref>
-* [[Kama-sutra]]s
 * Moksha-sutras
 * [[Shiva-sutras]]
 * [[Narada Bhakti Sutra]]
-==Buddhism==
-{{further|Buddhist texts|List of suttas}}
-{{Buddhism}}
-Some scholars consider that the Buddhist use of ''sutra'' is a faulty Sanskritization of the [[Prakrit]] or Pali word sutta and that the latter actually represented Sanskrit ''sūkta'', "well spoken, good news".<ref>K. R. Norman: ''A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Lectures 1994''. (Buddhist Forum, Vol. v.) xx, 193 pp. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1997. p. 104</ref> The early Buddhist sutras do not present the aphoristic, nearly cryptic nature of the Hindu sutras even though they also have been designed for mnemonic purposes in an oral tradition. On the contrary, they are most often lengthy, with many repetitions which serve the mnemonic purpose of the audience.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} They share the character of sermons of "good news" with the Jaina sutras, whose original name of ''sūya'' in Ardha Magadhi can derive from Sanskrit ''sūkta'', but hardly from ''sutra''.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
-In [[Buddhism]], sutra or sutta refers mostly to [[Buddhist texts#canonical texts|canonical scriptures]].{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
-In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], these are known as 經 ([[pinyin]]: ''jīng''). These teachings are assembled in part of the [[Tripiṭaka]] which is called the ''[[Sutta Pitaka]]''. There are many important or influential [[Mahayana]] texts, such as the ''[[Platform Sutra]]'' and the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', that are called sutras despite being attributed to much later authors.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}
-==Jainism==
-{{Jainism}}
-In the Jain tradition, sutras are an important genre of "fixed text", which used to be memorized.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Whitney Kelting |authorlink=Mary Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3|pages=84–85}}</ref>
-The [[Kalpa Sūtra]] is, for example, a Jain text with scripture of monastic rules,<ref>{{cite book|author=John Cort |title=Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MDBpq23-0QoC |year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973957-8 |pages=138–139 }}</ref> as well as the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras.<ref>{{cite book | last =Jacobi | first =Hermann |editor=Max Müller | title =Kalpa Sutra, Jain Sutras Part I | publisher =Oxford University Press | year =1884 }}</ref> Many sutras discuss all aspects of ascetic and lay life in Jainism. Various ancient sutras particularly from the early 1st millennium CE, for example, states M. Whitney Kelting, recommend "[[bhakti]] as devotionalism is a central part of a Jain practice".<ref name=kelting111>{{cite book|author= M. Whitney Kelting| authorlink=Mary Whitney Kelting | title= Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3 |pages=111–112 }}</ref>
-The surviving scriptures of Jaina tradition, such as the [[Acaranga Sutra]] ([[Jain Agamas|Agamas]]) exist in sutra format,<ref name=jainigasjd32>{{cite book|author=Padmanabh S. Jaini |title=Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GRA-uoUFz3MC |date=1991 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06820-9 |pages=32 }}</ref> as is the [[Tattvartha Sutra]] – a Sanskrit text accepted by all four Jainism sects as the most authoritative philosophical text that competely summarizes the foundations of Jainism.<ref>{{cite book|author=K. V. Mardia|title=The Scientific Foundations of Jainism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T_VCbRgKKNYC|year=1990|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0658-0|page=103|quote= '''Quote:''' Thus, there is a vast literature available but it seems that Tattvartha Sutra of Umasvati can be regarded as the main philosophical text of the religion and is recognized as authoritative by all Jains."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jaini|first=Padmanabh S. |title=The Jaina path of purification |url=http://books.google.com/?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C&pg=PA113 |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=81-208-1578-5|page=82}}</ref>
-== See also ==
-* [[Ananda Sutram]]
-* [[Sastra]]
-* [[Sutra copying]]
-* [[Sutram]]
-* [[Chinese Buddhist canon]]
-* [[Tibetan Buddhist canon]]
-* ''[[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta]]''
-* [[List of Majjhima Nikaya suttas]]
-==Notes==
-{{reflist|30em}}
 ==References==
-* {{cite book| title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |author=[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]] |year=1900 |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton and company |chapter=[[s:A History of Sanskrit Literature/Chapter 9|The sūtras]]}}
+<references />
-* Monier-Williams, Monier. (1899) ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary''. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass. p.&nbsp;1241
+[[Category:Vedangas]]
-* {{cite book |title = Scholastic Sanskrit: A Handbook for Students |year = 2007 |location = New York |publisher = Columbia University Press |last1 = Tubb |first1 = Gary A. |last2 = Boose |first2 = Emery R. |isbn = 978-0-9753734-7-7}}
-==External links==
-*[http://www.fodian.net/world/ Buddhist Scriptures in Multiple Languages]
-*[http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/Buddhism.htm#Sutras More Mahayana Sutras]
-*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm The Hindu Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and Vedanta] Sacred-texts.com
-*[http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/sutra.pdf A Modern sutra]
-*[http://www.uwest.edu/sanskritcanon/index.html Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon]
-*[http://www.buddhistinformation.com/ida_b_wells_memorial_sutra_library/ Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library] (Pali Suttas)
-{{Indian Philosophy}}
-{{Buddhism topics}}
-{{Hindudharma}}
-{{Authority control}}
-[[Category:Buddhist terminology]]
-[[Category:Hindu texts]]
-[[Category:Jain phrases]]
-[[Category:Mahayana texts]]
-[[Category:Sutra literature| ]]
-[[Category:Tripiṭaka]]