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Rgveda is an ancient text which contains stutis (praise or invocations) to many deities of that time. However, many socio-economic conditions of the Rgvedic times are found described in the mantras of Rgveda. The social fabric, habits of the people, their activities and occupations, the wars they fought, the metals they used, the technology they were aware of, the food they ate and their lifestyle is well evident in the study of Rgveda. We find details on many topics such as Varna vyavastha, Ashrama vyavastha, role of women in the society, marriage including right to choose a husband (svayamvar), widow remarriage, shiksha (teaching methods), food and drinks, garment industry, furniture and utensils, construction of houses and buildings, planning cities and villages, travel, warfare, agriculture, animal husbandry and prosperity in terms of owning cattle, various occupations such as that of weavers, carpenters specifically making chariots, gold and precious stone artisans, sculptors, and the leather artisans to name a few.  

Rgveda is an ancient text which contains stutis (praise or invocations) to many deities of that time. It holds a unique place in the world literatures for its many-fold aspects. It is a great cultural heritage describing the socio-economic conditions of the Rgvedic times. The social fabric, habits of the people, their activities and occupations, the wars they fought, the metals they used, the technology they were aware of, the food they ate and their lifestyle is well evident in the study of Rgveda. We find details on many topics such as Varna vyavastha, Ashrama vyavastha, role of women in the society, marriage including right to choose a husband (svayamvar), widow remarriage, shiksha (teaching methods), food and drinks, garment industry, furniture and utensils, construction of houses and buildings, planning cities and villages, travel, warfare, agriculture, animal husbandry and prosperity in terms of owning cattle, various occupations such as that of weavers, carpenters specifically making chariots, gold and precious stone artisans, sculptors, and the leather artisans to name a few.  

Knowledge of trade during Rgvedic time is seen from the various kinds of "coins" mentioned in the mantras. People were well-versed about economic factors such as interest, percentage, profit and loss. Trade was well developed both on land and on seas. People faced natural calamities and sought protection for the country as a whole. We find the usage of the terms such as "Rastra" and "Desha". Political system was well developed and the village was the smallest unit of governance. We find that people defined the nature and duties of a ruler, the Raja. We find relevant information about the nature of the ruler and associated rituals such as "rajya abhisheka" described in all Vedic literature. One of the earliest wars described in the Rgveda is about the war of Raja Sudasa with ten rajas of other "Janas". In this war, Indra helped Raja Sudasa obtain victory. It was called as "Dasharajna yuddha (दाशराज्ञ युद्ध)."<ref>Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 279-293)</ref>

Knowledge of trade during Rgvedic time is seen from the various kinds of "coins" mentioned in the mantras. People were well-versed about economic factors such as interest, percentage, profit and loss. Trade was well developed both on land and on seas. People faced natural calamities and sought protection for the country as a whole.  

 

We find the usage of the terms such as "Rastra" and "Desha". Political system was well developed and the village was the smallest unit of governance. The social structure consisted successively of the family (Kula), the village (Grama) whose headman was called gramini, and the clan (Vish) was a collection several gramas having a headman called Vishpati. Then several Vish constituted the bigger group of people (Jana) and an aggregation of all Jana in turn constitutes the rashtra (the country). A rashtra was a small state ruled by a raja (king). The bigger rastras were ruled by a 'samrat' and he enjoyed a position of greater authority and commanded respect. We find that people defined the nature and duties of a ruler, the Raja. We find relevant information about the nature of the ruler and associated rituals such as "rajya abhisheka" described in all Vedic literatures. One of the earliest wars described in the Rgveda is about the war of Raja Sudasa with ten rajas of other "Janas". In this war, Indra helped Raja Sudasa obtain victory. It was called as "Dasharajna yuddha (दाशराज्ञ युद्ध)."<ref>Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 279-293)</ref>

=== [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Varna_Dharma_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) Varna vyavastha]<ref name=":7">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 256-270)</ref> ===

=== [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Varna_Dharma_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) Varna vyavastha]<ref name=":7">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 256-270)</ref> ===

The very first reference to the existence of Varna vyavastha in the Indian society has been documented in the Rgveda. The famous Purusha Sukta mantra describes the origin of the four varnas as follows<blockquote>ब्रा॒ह्म॒णो॑ऽस्य॒ मुख॑मासीद्बा॒हू रा॑ज॒न्य॑: कृ॒तः । ऊ॒रू तद॑स्य॒ यद्वैश्य॑: प॒द्भ्यां शू॒द्रो अ॑जायत ॥१२॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.90.12)<ref>Purusha Sukta of Rig Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-090/ Mandala 10 Sukta 90])</ref></blockquote>In Atharvaveda and Yajurveda we find extensive details about the four varnas, specifically in the Yajurveda the activities to be performed by the people belonging to the four varnas are clearly outlined. It may be noted that in vedic literature varnavyavastha was based on "karma", dependent on guna and karma and not on "janma" or by birth. It referred to occupation or activities; anyone choosing the teaching profession was a brahmana and those associated to the army were kshatriyas. By his tapas Vishvamitra came to be called a Brahmarshi and he is one of the vaidik rshis who gave the Rgveda mantras. There was no inferiority or superiority among the people of different varnas and all lived  understanding their duties in harmony. There are references to विप्रराज्य (Viprarajya) or Brahmana rajya and समर्य राज्य (Samarya Rajya) or Vaishya rajyas. Brahmanas were referred to using the terms Brahman, Vipra, and Devas. Vaishyas were referred to as Vish, Arya, Samarya. Rgveda mentions that Viprarajyas spread in vast areas just like the oceans, where yajnas and other dharmik rituals were paid special attention to. It is also said that the great Samaryarajyas flourished with bountifulness of food and armed-forces. However due to some shortcomings both the administrative models were not popular among the people and were lost in time.<blockquote>अयं .... समुद्र इव पप्रथे। .... शवो यज्ञेषु विप्रराज्ये। (Rig. Veda. 7.3.4)    अनु .... मदामसि, महे समर्यराज्ये । (Rig. Veda. 9.110.2)</blockquote>Shudras were not treated with disrespect or looked down up in Vedic times. They were allowed to read Vedas as mentioned in the Yajurveda. They were given the position of Rajakrt (one who works for the Rajas) and included the Rathakaaras (chariot makers), Karmars (artisans), Suta (chariot riders) were all Shudras. They are also given such positions for effective administration.<ref name=":7" />

While varnas are not very explicitly described in the Rigveda, it is considered that the social body of the Indian society included men of all ranks and professions. However, in the tenth mandala we find the very first reference to the existence of Varna vyavastha in the Indian society as documented in the Rgveda. The famous Purusha Sukta mantra describes the origin of the four varnas as follows<blockquote>ब्रा॒ह्म॒णो॑ऽस्य॒ मुख॑मासीद्बा॒हू रा॑ज॒न्य॑: कृ॒तः । ऊ॒रू तद॑स्य॒ यद्वैश्य॑: प॒द्भ्यां शू॒द्रो अ॑जायत ॥१२॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.90.12)<ref>Purusha Sukta of Rig Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-090/ Mandala 10 Sukta 90])</ref></blockquote>In Atharvaveda and Yajurveda we find extensive details about the four varnas, specifically in the Yajurveda the activities to be performed by the people belonging to the four varnas are clearly outlined. It may be noted that in vedic literature varnavyavastha was based on "karma", dependent on guna and karma and not on "janma" or by birth. It referred to occupation or activities; anyone choosing the teaching profession was a brahmana and those associated to the army were kshatriyas. By his tapas Vishvamitra came to be called a Brahmarshi and he is one of the vaidik rshis who gave the Rgveda mantras. There was no inferiority or superiority among the people of different varnas and all lived  understanding their duties in harmony. There are references to विप्रराज्य (Viprarajya) or Brahmana rajya and समर्य राज्य (Samarya Rajya) or Vaishya rajyas. Brahmanas were referred to using the terms Brahman, Vipra, and Devas. Vaishyas were referred to as Vish, Arya, Samarya. Rgveda mentions that Viprarajyas spread in vast areas just like the oceans, where yajnas and other dharmik rituals were paid special attention to. It is also said that the great Samaryarajyas flourished with bountifulness of food and armed-forces. However due to some shortcomings both the administrative models were not popular among the people and were lost in time.<blockquote>अयं .... समुद्र इव पप्रथे। .... शवो यज्ञेषु विप्रराज्ये। (Rig. Veda. 7.3.4)    अनु .... मदामसि, महे समर्यराज्ये । (Rig. Veda. 9.110.2)</blockquote>Shudras were not treated with disrespect or looked down up in Vedic times. They were allowed to read Vedas as mentioned in the Yajurveda. They were given the position of Rajakrt (one who works for the Rajas) and included the Rathakaaras (chariot makers), Karmars (artisans), Suta (chariot riders) were all Shudras. They are also given such positions for effective administration.<ref name=":7" />

=== [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Ashrama_Dharma_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) Ashrama-vyavastha]<ref name=":7" /> ===

=== [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Ashrama_Dharma_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) Ashrama-vyavastha]<ref name=":7" /> ===

हत्वी दस्यून् पुर आयसीर्नि तारीत् । (Rg. Veda. 2.20.8)</blockquote>Asuras also had forts or walled cities made of metal. Indra destroyed many such cities of the asuras. Such references throw  light on the advanced state of building construction in the Rgvedic society.<ref name=":7" />

हत्वी दस्यून् पुर आयसीर्नि तारीत् । (Rg. Veda. 2.20.8)</blockquote>Asuras also had forts or walled cities made of metal. Indra destroyed many such cities of the asuras. Such references throw  light on the advanced state of building construction in the Rgvedic society.<ref name=":7" />

=== Agriculture<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":0">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 142-161)</ref> ===

=== Economy<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":0">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 142-161)</ref> ===

Interestingly in the Rgveda, we find reference to agriculture as a virtue to be possessed against a game of dice (considered as a vice).<blockquote>अक्षैर्मा दीव्यः कृषिमित् कृषस्व । (Rg. Veda. 10.34.7)</blockquote>Rgveda clearly mentions that the technology involved in agriculture or [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Krshi%20Vijnana%20(%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) Krshi] was first given by Prthu Maharaja (Prthi), who was the son of Veni. He produced different kinds of food grains (Anna) by using krshividya. This information is corroborated in Atharva Veda and Mahabharata (Shanti Parva) and Bhagavata Purana (Skanda 4.16-23).<blockquote>पृथी यद् वां वैन्यः। (Rg. Veda. 8.9.10)</blockquote>There are a few agriculture related suktas in Rgveda (10.101 and 4.59). In Mandala 10, we find an interesting aspect as to how agriculture was initiated. Sukta 28 mentions that at first devagana (reference to those wise people who were interested in Purusharthas) came forward with their axes  (परशु) to clear the forests. They also had many other ganas who helped them even the land. The useful timbers (सुद्रु) were laid near the river banks and grass and weeds (कृपीट) were burnt down.<blockquote>दे॒वास॑ आयन्पर॒शूँर॑बिभ्र॒न्वना॑ वृ॒श्चन्तो॑ अ॒भि वि॒ड्भिरा॑यन् । नि सु॒द्र्वं१ दध॑तो व॒क्षणा॑सु॒ यत्रा॒ कृपी॑ट॒मनु॒ तद्द॑हन्ति ॥८॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.28.8)<ref>Rg Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-028/ Mandala 10 Sukta 28])</ref></blockquote>From this it may be known that forests were widespread and agriculture had to be initiated in forest clearings. People were dependent on Anna (food) and hence agriculture was of utmost importance. The process of agricultural activities was explained in the Rgveda. They include preparing the plough, yolking the oxen, and sowing seeds in well prepared land. A prayer for plentiful and bountiful crop is expressed in the mantras of mandala ten. Once the crop is ready, they are cut using sickles and the ripe grains are brought home after appropriate treatment. <blockquote>यु॒नक्त॒ सीरा॒ वि यु॒गा त॑नुध्वं कृ॒ते योनौ॑ वपते॒ह बीज॑म् । गि॒रा च॑ श्रु॒ष्टिः सभ॑रा॒ अस॑न्नो॒ नेदी॑य॒ इत्सृ॒ण्य॑: प॒क्वमेया॑त् ॥३॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.101.3)<ref>Rg Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-101/ Mandala 10 Sukta 101])</ref></blockquote>Till today many of these practices are followed with the change being the implements used.<ref name=":0" />

Agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and commerce were the main economic activities of the Rgvedic people. Interestingly in the Rgveda, we find reference to agriculture as a virtue to be possessed against a game of dice (considered as a vice).<blockquote>अक्षैर्मा दीव्यः कृषिमित् कृषस्व । (Rg. Veda. 10.34.7)</blockquote>Rgveda clearly mentions that the technology involved in agriculture or [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Krshi%20Vijnana%20(%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) Krshi] was first given by Prthu Maharaja (Prthi), who was the son of Veni. He produced different kinds of food grains (Anna) by using krshividya. This information is corroborated in Atharva Veda and Mahabharata (Shanti Parva) and Bhagavata Purana (Skanda 4.16-23).<blockquote>पृथी यद् वां वैन्यः। (Rg. Veda. 8.9.10)</blockquote>There are a few agriculture related suktas in Rgveda (10.101 and 4.59). In Mandala 10, we find an interesting aspect as to how agriculture was initiated. Sukta 28 mentions that at first devagana (reference to those wise people who were interested in Purusharthas) came forward with their axes  (परशु) to clear the forests. They also had many other ganas who helped them even the land. The useful timbers (सुद्रु) were laid near the river banks and grass and weeds (कृपीट) were burnt down.<blockquote>दे॒वास॑ आयन्पर॒शूँर॑बिभ्र॒न्वना॑ वृ॒श्चन्तो॑ अ॒भि वि॒ड्भिरा॑यन् । नि सु॒द्र्वं१ दध॑तो व॒क्षणा॑सु॒ यत्रा॒ कृपी॑ट॒मनु॒ तद्द॑हन्ति ॥८॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.28.8)<ref>Rg Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-028/ Mandala 10 Sukta 28])</ref></blockquote>From this it may be known that forests were widespread and agriculture had to be initiated in forest clearings. People were dependent on Anna (food) and hence agriculture was of utmost importance. The process of agricultural activities was explained in the Rgveda. They include preparing the plough, yolking the oxen, and sowing seeds in well prepared land. A prayer for plentiful and bountiful crop is expressed in the mantras of mandala ten. Once the crop is ready, they are cut using sickles and the ripe grains are brought home after appropriate treatment. <blockquote>यु॒नक्त॒ सीरा॒ वि यु॒गा त॑नुध्वं कृ॒ते योनौ॑ वपते॒ह बीज॑म् । गि॒रा च॑ श्रु॒ष्टिः सभ॑रा॒ अस॑न्नो॒ नेदी॑य॒ इत्सृ॒ण्य॑: प॒क्वमेया॑त् ॥३॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.101.3)<ref>Rg Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-101/ Mandala 10 Sukta 101])</ref></blockquote>Till today many of these practices are followed with the change being the implements used.<ref name=":0" /> People were well aware that to get good quality food grains, the best quality seed has to be sown. Farmers hence sowed good quality seeds. Manure was used for high yield; irrigation was also practiced. <blockquote>शु॒नं न॒: फाला॒ वि कृ॑षन्तु॒ भूमिं॑ शु॒नं की॒नाशा॑ अ॒भि य॑न्तु वा॒हैः ।

 

People were well aware that to get good quality food grains, the best quality seed has to be sown. Farmers hence sowed good quality seeds. <blockquote>शु॒नं न॒: फाला॒ वि कृ॑षन्तु॒ भूमिं॑ शु॒नं की॒नाशा॑ अ॒भि य॑न्तु वा॒हैः ।

शु॒नं प॒र्जन्यो॒ मधु॑ना॒ पयो॑भि॒: शुना॑सीरा शु॒नम॒स्मासु॑ धत्तम् ॥८॥ (Rg. Veda. 4.57.8)<ref name=":1">Rg Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-04-sukta-057/ Mandala 4 Sukta 57])</ref></blockquote>According to this mantra, the flat portion of the plough easily flattens the  earth, as the farmer drives the bulls. Vayu and Surya (शुनासीर) satisfied with the havis offered give good grain yield in the land.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>शु॒नं वा॒हाः शु॒नं नर॑: शु॒नं कृ॑षतु॒ लाङ्ग॑लम् । शु॒नं व॑र॒त्रा ब॑ध्यन्तां शु॒नमष्ट्रा॒मुदि॑ङ्गय ॥४॥ (Rg. Veda. 4.57.8)<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>Since the earliest times, agricultural practices and animal husbandry went hand in hand. The mantra above is an invocation for the happiness of the animals (farm) and people, "let the animals be happy, let the men be happy, may the plough move easily (on the field), while the ropes are bound (to the animals) and the whip be used as appropriate."  

शु॒नं प॒र्जन्यो॒ मधु॑ना॒ पयो॑भि॒: शुना॑सीरा शु॒नम॒स्मासु॑ धत्तम् ॥८॥ (Rg. Veda. 4.57.8)<ref name=":1">Rg Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-04-sukta-057/ Mandala 4 Sukta 57])</ref></blockquote>According to this mantra, the flat portion of the plough easily flattens the  earth, as the farmer drives the bulls. Vayu and Surya (शुनासीर) satisfied with the havis offered give good grain yield in the land.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>शु॒नं वा॒हाः शु॒नं नर॑: शु॒नं कृ॑षतु॒ लाङ्ग॑लम् । शु॒नं व॑र॒त्रा ब॑ध्यन्तां शु॒नमष्ट्रा॒मुदि॑ङ्गय ॥४॥ (Rg. Veda. 4.57.8)<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>Since the earliest times, agricultural practices and animal husbandry went hand in hand. The mantra above is an invocation for the happiness of the animals (farm) and people, "let the animals be happy, let the men be happy, may the plough move easily (on the field), while the ropes are bound (to the animals) and the whip be used as appropriate." Excessive rains and drought were mentioned as the calamities damaging to the crops. Dhanyas or Yavas were the terms used to refer to the food grains collectively. 

== References ==

== References ==