Changes

'''Shiksha''' (Samskrit: शिक्षा) means "instruction, lesson, learning, study of skill". Shiksha is a knowledge of pronunciation and accent, insufficiently expressed as phonetics.<ref>All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 34</ref> In this context it refers to one of the six [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]], or limbs of Vedic studies, the others being [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyākaraṇam]] (Grammar), Chandas (Prosody), Niruktam (Semantics and Thesaurus), [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotiṣam]] (Astrology) and [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]] (Practice of Rites). It has an important place in the Vidyasthanas and hence study of this shastra is a prerequisite for Vyakarana.  

'''Shiksha''' (Samskrit: शिक्षा) is a shastra pertaining to pronunciation and accent which has a major role in the preservation of the vaidika mantras; as such it is  insufficiently expressed as phonetics.<ref>All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 34</ref> In this context it refers to one of the six [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]], or limbs of Vedic studies, the others being [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyākaraṇam]] (Grammar), Chandas (Prosody), Niruktam (Semantics and Thesaurus), [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotiṣam]] (Astrology) and [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]] (Practice of Rites). It has an important place in the Vidyasthanas and hence study of this shastra is a prerequisite for Vyakarana.  

[[File:Shiksha.png|thumb|600x600px|'''Articulation of Sounds from Throat, Nose and Mouth''' Courtesy: Book "Sarwang" Published by Adivasi Lok Kala Evam Boli Vikas Academy, Madhya Pradesh Sanskriti Parishad]]

[[File:Shiksha.png|thumb|600x600px|'''Articulation of Sounds from Throat, Nose and Mouth''' Courtesy: Book "Sarwang" Published by Adivasi Lok Kala Evam Boli Vikas Academy, Madhya Pradesh Sanskriti Parishad]]

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

Shiksha is considered as the nose (घ्राणम् - ghrāṇam) of Vedapuruṣa (knowledge personified) as described in Mundakopanishad (1.1.15). Unlike other later day languages, pronunciation is of utmost importance in Samskrit. Different speech organs, places for different letters, the efforts, the accents, quantity, pitch, stress, melody, process of how letters are produced, the virtues and vices of pronunciation, the problem with mispronunciation etc. are discussed in this science of pronunciation dealt with, in the [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Shad Vedangas]].

Shiksha is considered as the nose (घ्राणम् - ghrāṇam) of Vedapuruṣa (knowledge personified) as described in Mundakopanishad (1.1.15). Unlike other later day languages, pronunciation is of utmost importance in Samskrit. Different speech organs, places for different letters, the efforts, the accents, quantity, pitch, stress, melody, process of how letters are produced, the virtues and vices of pronunciation, the problem with mispronunciation etc. are discussed in this science of pronunciation dealt with, in the [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Shad Vedangas]]. The literature pertaining to Vedanga Shiksa is classified into Pratishakhyas and Shiksagranthas.

Each ancient vaidika parampara survived through millenia as they developed pronunciation and the testimony to this is are the surviving texts are the Pratishakyas. The Paniniya-Shiksha and Naradiya-Shiksha are examples of extant ancient manuscripts of this field of Vedic studies. One should learn Shiksha principles before studying the Vyakarana.

Each ancient vaidika parampara survived through millenia as they developed pronunciation and the testimony to this is fact, are the surviving texts, namely  Pratishakyas. It is the effect of this knowledge that the utterance of vaidika mantras have been unchanged in each parampara. The Paniniya-Shiksha and Naradiya-Shiksha are examples of extant ancient manuscripts of this field of Vedic studies.  

The ancient Vedic schools developed major treatises analyzing sound, vowels and consonants, rules of combination and pronunciation to assist clear understanding, to avoid mistakes and for resonance (pleasing to the listener). These texts include Samhita-pathas and Pada-pathas, and partially or fully surviving manuscripts include Paniniya Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha, Vasishthi Shiksha, Parashari Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha and Manduki Shiksha.

The ancient Vedic schools developed major treatises analyzing sound, vowels and consonants, rules of combination and pronunciation to assist clear understanding, to avoid mistakes and for resonance (pleasing to the listener). These texts include Samhita-pathas and Pada-pathas, and partially or fully surviving manuscripts include Paniniya Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha, Vasishthi Shiksha, Parashari Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha and Manduki Shiksha.

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

The roots of Shiksha can be traced to [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] which dedicates two hymns 10.125 and 10.71 to revere sound as a goddess, and links the development of thought to the development of speech. Taittiriya Upanishad, in Shikshavalli,  contains one of the earliest description of Shiksha as follows,<blockquote>शीक्षां व्याख्यास्यामः। वर्णस्स्वरः। मात्रा बलम्। साम सन्तानः। इत्युक्तश्शीक्षाध्यायः ॥ (Tait. Upan. Shik. 2)<ref>Taittriya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4% Shikshavalli  Anuvaka 2])</ref></blockquote>Now, we will clearly state about Shiksha (phonetics). There are six aspects to be discussed in Shiksha: letter, accent, short/long vowel etc, the efforts to be put in during pronunciation, pronouncing at medium pace and the sandhi (the change in the form of letters when uttered in quick succession) - this is called the chapter of Shiksha.

The roots of Shiksha can be traced to [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] which dedicates two hymns 10.125 and 10.71 to revere sound as a goddess, and links the development of thought to the development of speech. Taittiriya Upanishad, in Shikshavalli,  contains one of the earliest description of Shiksha as follows,<blockquote>शीक्षां व्याख्यास्यामः। वर्णस्स्वरः। मात्रा बलम्। साम सन्तानः। इत्युक्तश्शीक्षाध्यायः ॥ (Tait. Upan. Shik. 2)<ref>Taittriya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4% Shikshavalli  Anuvaka 2])</ref></blockquote>Now, we will clearly state about Shiksha (phonetics). There are six aspects to be discussed in Shiksha: letter, accent, short/long vowel etc, the efforts to be put in during pronunciation, pronouncing at medium pace and the sandhi (the change in the form of letters when uttered in quick succession) - this is called the chapter of Shiksha.

==Shabdotpatti==

==Shabdotpatti==

The earliest Brahmanas – a layer of text within the Vedas, include some terms of art in the Vedic phonetics, such as Varna and Avasana. Varnas are the fundamental speech units and they are produced (वर्णोत्पत्तिः) by a complex process involving the antaranga or inner mind combined with air and articulating organs. Panini shiksha describes the physiological process by which [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|sound (or varnas here) is produced]] in the human being. According to Paniniya Shiksha,  <blockquote>वर्णाञ्जनयते तेषां विभागः पञ्चधा स्मृतः।।9।। स्वरतः कालतः स्थानात्प्रयत्नानुप्रदानतः। इति वर्णविदः प्राहुर्निपुणं तन्निबोधत ।।10 (Pani. Shik<ref name=":0">Paniniya Shiksha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Full Text])</ref>) </blockquote>Varnas or Speech sounds are generated on the basis of the five following ways  

The earliest Brahmanas – a layer of text within the Vedas, include some terms of art in the Vedic phonetics, such as Varna and Avasana. Varnas are the fundamental speech units and they are produced (वर्णोत्पत्तिः) by a complex process involving the antaranga or inner mind combined with air and articulating organs. Panini shiksha describes the physiological process by which [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|sound (or varnas here) is produced]] in the human being. According to Paniniya Shiksha,  <blockquote>वर्णाञ्जनयते तेषां विभागः पञ्चधा स्मृतः।।9।। स्वरतः कालतः स्थानात्प्रयत्नानुप्रदानतः। इति वर्णविदः प्राहुर्निपुणं तन्निबोधत ।।10 (Pani. Shik<ref name=":0">Paniniya Shiksha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE Full Text])</ref>) </blockquote>Varnas or Speech sounds are generated on the basis of the five following ways<ref name=":1" />

# स्वरः ॥ Svara (Accent or Pitch) are three in number: udātta, anudātta, and Svarita.

# स्वरः ॥ Svara (Accent or Pitch) are three in number: udātta, anudātta, and Svarita.

# मात्रा ॥ Matra (Quantity or time of utterance) are three in number:  ह्रस्व (hrasva = short), दीर्घ (dīrgha = long) and प्लुत (pluta = longer)

# मात्रा ॥ Matra (Quantity or time of utterance) are three in number:  ह्रस्व (hrasva = short), दीर्घ (dīrgha = long) and प्लुत (pluta = longer)

==== Varnas in Samskrit Language ====

==== Varnas in Samskrit Language ====

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Samskrit Varnas

|+Samskrit Varnas

## '''Nāda''': Voiced

## '''Nāda''': Voiced

== स्वरतोऽपराधम् ॥ Effects of Bad Pronunciation ==

== स्वरतो वर्णतो वा अपराधम् ॥ Effects of Bad Pronunciation ==

Pāṇinīyaśikṣā cautions against any mispronunciation in terms of accent or letter and asserts that such a usage would boomerang:<blockquote>मन्त्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ॥ ५२ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>mantro hīnaḥ svarato varṇato vā mithyāprayukto na tamarthamāha । sa vāgvajro yajamānaṃ hinasti yathendraśatruḥ svarato'parādhāt ॥ 52 ॥</blockquote>A mantra that is defective in terms of accent or letter would not be useful as it does not convey the intended meaning. Moreover it will become a weapon as good as the diamond-weapon of Indra, and boomerangs against the doer. This is what happened when the mantra 'indraśatruḥ vardhasva' was employed with a different accent. The following story from Taittirīyasaṃhitā 2-5-2-1, and Śatapathabrāhmaṇa 1-5-2-10 (Śuklayajurveda) is being referred to by the quoted mantra – <blockquote>अथ यदब्रवीत् – इन्द्रशत्रुर्वर्धस्वेति तस्मादु हैनमिन्द्र एव जघान। अथ यद्ध शश्वदवक्ष्यत् – इन्द्रस्य शत्रुर्वर्धस्वेति शश्वदुह स इन्द्रमेवाहनिष्यत् ।</blockquote><blockquote>atha yadabravīt – indraśatrurvardhasveti tasmādu hainamindra eva jaghāna. atha yaddha śaśvadavakṣyat – indrasya śatrurvardhasveti śaśvaduha sa indramevāhaniṣyat</blockquote>Visvarūpa was the son of Tvaṣṭā. The former was killed by Indra. Tvaṣṭā wanted to avenge and commenced a sacrifice called 'abhicārahoma' in order to have a son who can kill [[Indra (इन्द्रः)|Indra]]. Then, while praying to Fire-God (āhavanīyāgni) a mantra, i.e. 'svāhendraśatrurvardhasva', which means – "O! Fire-God! Prosper as a person who can kill Indra" was guessed. In the mantra 'śatru' means destroyer and in such a case it should be employed with 'antodāttasvara' as it is a Tatpuruṣasamāsa, i.e. indrasya śatruḥ. But the priest employed the same mantra as 'ādyudātta', which is a Bahuvrīhisamāsa, which means 'be born as one, who has got Indra as the destroyer'. As a result Indra became the destroyer of [[Vrtrasura (वृत्रासुरः)|Vṛtra]], who was just born and got killed. Therefore, in order to avoid such repercussions, one should be careful in his speech actions.

 

Pāṇinī further cautions against any mispronunciation in terms of accent or letter and asserts that such a usage would bring about disastrous consequences to the yajamana:<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>मन्त्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ॥ ५२ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>mantro hīnaḥ svarato varṇato vā mithyāprayukto na tamarthamāha । sa vāgvajro yajamānaṃ hinasti yathendraśatruḥ svarato'parādhāt ॥ 52 ॥</blockquote>A mantra that is defective in terms of accent or letter would not be useful as it does not convey the intended meaning. Moreover it will become a weapon as good as the diamond-weapon of Indra, and boomerangs against the doer. This is what happened when the mantra 'indraśatruḥ vardhasva' was employed with a different accent. The following story from Taittirīyasaṃhitā 2-5-2-1, and Śatapathabrāhmaṇa 1-5-2-10 (Śuklayajurveda) is being referred to by the quoted mantra – <blockquote>अथ यदब्रवीत् – इन्द्रशत्रुर्वर्धस्वेति तस्मादु हैनमिन्द्र एव जघान। अथ यद्ध शश्वदवक्ष्यत् – इन्द्रस्य शत्रुर्वर्धस्वेति शश्वदुह स इन्द्रमेवाहनिष्यत् ।</blockquote><blockquote>atha yadabravīt – indraśatrurvardhasveti tasmādu hainamindra eva jaghāna. atha yaddha śaśvadavakṣyat – indrasya śatrurvardhasveti śaśvaduha sa indramevāhaniṣyat</blockquote>Visvarūpa was the son of Tvaṣṭā. The former was killed by Indra. Tvaṣṭā wanted to avenge and commenced a sacrifice called 'abhicārahoma' in order to have a son who can kill [[Indra (इन्द्रः)|Indra]]. Then, while praying to Fire-God (āhavanīyāgni) a mantra, i.e. 'svāhendraśatrurvardhasva', which means – "O! Fire-God! Prosper as a person who can kill Indra" was guessed. In the mantra 'śatru' means destroyer and in such a case it should be employed with 'antodāttasvara' as it is a Tatpuruṣasamāsa, i.e. indrasya śatruḥ. But the priest employed the same mantra as 'ādyudātta', which is a Bahuvrīhisamāsa, which means 'be born as one, who has got Indra as the destroyer'. As a result Indra became the destroyer of [[Vrtrasura (वृत्रासुरः)|Vṛtra]], who was just born and got killed. Therefore, in order to avoid such repercussions, one should be careful in his speech actions.

 

 

Acharyas are cautioned to watch for the above mentioned four qualities in students both in adequate proportion amount and combination. The Acharya himself must have the ability to distinguish the svara and varna doshas, thus should have exceptional hearing abilities to weed out the errors and correct them in a student. Probably because of this requirement the study is referred to as tapasya, always requiring the concentration of mind and well concerted assiduous efforts in listening as well as in erudition.<blockquote>ध्वनिस्स्थानञ्च करणं प्रयत्नः कालता स्वरः। देवताजातिरेतैश्च वर्णा ज्ञेया विचक्षणैः ॥</blockquote><blockquote>पदक्रमविशेषज्ञो वर्णक्रमविचक्षणः । स्वरमात्राविभाज्ञो गच्छेदाचार्यसम्पदम् ॥ (Vyas. Shik. 511-512)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>One who understands and discerns the dhvani (sound) sthanas (place of articulation), karanas (articulators), prayatnas (efforts), kalata (notion of time), devatas associated with varnas, the grouping (jati), is an expert in padakrama and varnakrama and knows the svaras and matras - such a person attains the position of Acharya.

==Pratishakhyas==

==प्रातिशाख्यानां शिक्षास्वरूपता ॥ Pratishakhyas related to Shiksha==

Pratisakhyas are the oldest ''Siksa'' textbooks of each branch of the Vedas. Later Siksa texts are more specialized and systematic, and often titled with suffix "Siksa", such as the Naradiya-Siksa, Vyasa-Siksa, Pari-Siksa and Sarvasammata-Siksa.

Pratisakhyas are the oldest Siksa textbooks intimately connected to shakas of the four Vedas. Nevertheless, their contribution in protecting the vedic form, is as invaluable as that of Vyakarana and Siksha texts. Their textual content differs from Vyakarana and Shiksha granthas in that they deal exclusively with the peculiarities of that particular veda shaka in the areas of svaras, sandhis and other pronunciation aspects and are thus as old as the Vedas themselves.<ref name=":3" /> Later Siksa texts are systematic, and often titled with suffix "Siksa", such as the Naradiya-Siksa, Vyasa-Siksa, Pari-Siksa and Sarvasammata-Siksa.

The [[Pratisakhya|Pratishakhyas]], which evolved from the more ancient Vedic Texts padapathas, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda. They complement the books called Shiksha written by various authorities. Several Pratishakhyas have survived into the modern era, and these texts refine the structure of sound at different levels of nuance, some adding many more letters to the basic set in the Sanskrit alphabet:

The Pratishakhyas, which evolved from the more ancient Vedic Texts padapathas, deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda. They complement the books called Shiksha written by various authorities. Several Pratishakhyas have survived into the modern era, and these texts refine the structure of sound at different levels of nuance, some adding many more letters to the basic set in the Sanskrit alphabet:

* [[Rigveda]]-Pratishakya: 47 letters<ref name="egenesp152">{{cite book|author=Thomas Egenes|title=Introduction to Sanskrit|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZAu6xhfb4bUC&pg=PA152|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1693-0|pages=152–154}}</ref>

* [[Rigveda]]-Pratishakya: 47 letters<ref name="egenesp152">{{cite book|author=Thomas Egenes|title=Introduction to Sanskrit|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZAu6xhfb4bUC&pg=PA152|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1693-0|pages=152–154}}</ref>

* [[Shukla Yajurveda]]-Pratishakhya: 65 letters<ref name="egenesp152" />

* [[Shukla Yajurveda]]-Pratishakhya: 65 letters<ref name="egenesp152" />

* Paniniya-Siksa: 63 or 64 letters<ref name="egenesp152" />

* Paniniya-Siksa: 63 or 64 letters<ref name="egenesp152" />

The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they broke up the large Vedic [[compound word|compound]]s into [[word stem]]s, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation (''{{IAST|pāṭha}}''), such as the ''{{IAST|jaṭāpāṭha}},'' involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of [[sandhi]]. The Samaveda Pratishakhya, one of the earliest, organizes the [[stop consonant]] sounds into a 5x5 ''varga'' or square:

The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they broke up the large Vedic [[compound word|compound]]s into [[word stem]]s, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation (), such as the '','' involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of [[sandhi]]. The Samaveda Pratishakhya, one of the earliest, organizes the [[stop consonant]] sounds into a 5x5 ''varga'' or square:

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style=" background: transparent; " |+ The magic square within Sanskrit alphabet{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=477-479}}

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style=" background: transparent; " |+ The magic square within Sanskrit alphabet{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=477-479}}

The Varga system and the Pratishakshyas, contributions of the Shiksha texts, are elaborate systems which deal with the generation and classification of sound.

The Varga system and the Pratishakshyas, contributions of the Shiksha texts, are elaborate systems which deal with the generation and classification of sound.

==Shiksha texts==

==Shiksha Granthas==

In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. The following list contains some of these surviving texts: Amoghanandini Shiksha, Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form), Aranya Shiksha, Atreya Shiksha, Avasananirnyaya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form), Charayaniya Shiksha, Galadrka Shiksha,  Kalanirnya Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha, Kaundinya Shiksha, Keshavi Shiksha, Kramakarika Shiksha, Kramasandhaana Shiksha, Laghumoghanandini Shiksha, Lakshmikanta Shiksha, Lomashi Shiksha, Madhyandina Shiksha, Mandavya Shiksha, Mallasharmakrta Shiksha, Manasvaara Shiksha, Manduki Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Paniniya Shiksha (versified), Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form), Paniniya Shiksha (with accents), Parashari Shiksha, Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha, Pari Shiksha, Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha, Sarvasammata Shiksha, Shaishiriya Shiksha, Shamaana Shiksha, Shambhu Shiksha, Shodashashloki Shiksha, Shikshasamgraha, Siddhanta Shiksha, Svaraankusha Shiksha, Svarashtaka Shiksha, Svaravyanjana Shiksha, Vasishtha Shiksha, Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha, Vyaali Shiksha, Vyasa Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha.

In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. The following list contains some of these surviving texts: Amoghanandini Shiksha, Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form), Aranya Shiksha, Atreya Shiksha, Avasananirnyaya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form), Charayaniya Shiksha, Galadrka Shiksha,  Kalanirnya Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha, Kaundinya Shiksha, Keshavi Shiksha, Kramakarika Shiksha, Kramasandhaana Shiksha, Laghumoghanandini Shiksha, Lakshmikanta Shiksha, Lomashi Shiksha, Madhyandina Shiksha, Mandavya Shiksha, Mallasharmakrta Shiksha, Manasvaara Shiksha, Manduki Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Paniniya Shiksha (versified), Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form), Paniniya Shiksha (with accents), Parashari Shiksha, Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha, Pari Shiksha, Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha, Sarvasammata Shiksha, Shaishiriya Shiksha, Shamaana Shiksha, Shambhu Shiksha, Shodashashloki Shiksha, Shikshasamgraha, Siddhanta Shiksha, Svaraankusha Shiksha, Svarashtaka Shiksha, Svaravyanjana Shiksha, Vasishtha Shiksha, Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha, Vyaali Shiksha, Vyasa Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha.

===Vowels===

===Vowels===

{{main|Vedic accent}}

{{main|Vedic accent}}

It was said{{who|date=March 2016}} that in Sanskrit a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (3×2×3), based on [[Timing (linguistics)|timing]], [[Manner of articulation|manner]], and [[Vedic accent|accent]] of pronunciation.{{cn|date=March 2016}}

It was said{{who|date=March 2016}} that in Sanskrit a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (3×2×3), based on [[Timing (linguistics)|timing]], [[Manner of articulation|manner]], and [[Vedic accent|accent]] of pronunciation.

Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the duration of pronunciation (''[[morae]]''):

Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the duration of pronunciation (''[[morae]]''):

* '''Hrasva''': [[Short vowel]], Eka-mātra

* '''Hrasva''': [[Short vowel]], Eka-mātra

* '''Dīrgha''': [[Long vowel]], Dvi-mātra

* '''Dīrgha''': [[Long vowel]], Dvi-mātra

* '''{{IAST|Pluta}}''': Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra ([[pluti|{{IAST|pluti}}]])

* : Prolonged vowel, Tri-mātra ()

We see that each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to the duration of articulation.

We see that each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to the duration of articulation.

×. The unit of time is a ''mātra'' (approx. 0.4 seconds).

×. The unit of time is a ''mātra'' (approx. 0.4 seconds).

: '''Nāsika''': [[Nasal vowel|Nasal]] (all vowels are considered phonemically oral)

: '''Nāsika''': [[Nasal vowel|Nasal]] (all vowels are considered phonemically oral)

Each vowel can also be classified into three types, that is, pronounced in three ways, based on accent of articulation. This feature was lost in [[Classical Sanskrit]], but used in reciting [[Vedas|Vedic]] and [[Upanishad]]ic [[hymn]]s and [[mantra]]s.{{cn|date=March 2016}}

Each vowel can also be classified into three types, that is, pronounced in three ways, based on accent of articulation. This feature was lost in [[Classical Sanskrit]], but used in reciting [[Vedas|Vedic]] and [[Upanishad]]ic [[hymn]]s and [[mantra]]s.

: '''Udātta''': high pitch

: '''Udātta''': high pitch

: '''Anudātta''': low pitch

: '''Anudātta''': low pitch