ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)

Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाण) is the means or the special source of pramaa (Samskrit : प्रमा) or right knowledge. It is that which gives a subject valid knowledge and only valid knowledge of objects. Pramanas are the processes through which one understands the realities of cosmos. When reality reveals true knowledge it is called prama or valid knowledge, and when this revelation is false it is called aprama or invalid knowledge.

All the ancient Indian philosophical schools , namely the Shad Darsanas (Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa) and Vedanta (also known as Uttara Mimamsa)) sprang up out of an urge for enquiry into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa).

Etymology

The term pramana is derived from the root maa with a prefix pra and suffix lyut.

Prama is defined as the karana or extraordinary cause of a prama or right knowledge.

Different views of Pramana

It is generally admitted by all the schools of philosophy that pramaa is the true knowledge and pramaana is the source of such knowledge. However, difference of opinions exist as to the the nature of the truth which each of them claims for its pramaana.

Vaiseshika Dristikona

Kanda who occupies the first place in traceable history of epistemological tradition states that the general definition of pramana should be based on the principle that the cause of cognition should be free from defects (अदुष्टं विद्या । वैशेषिक-९,२.१२ । adustam vidya (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)

Nyaya Dristikona

According to them, pramana is the unique operative cause (kaarana) of pramaa or right knowledge. It is the complex of specific conditions or causes (karana), other than the subject and the object, which invariably produces valid knowledge.

Mimaamsa Drishtikona

Bhatta Mimamsa, considers prama or true knowledge as the primary and original knowledge (anaadigata). Hence pramaana is that which gives us new knowledge, i.e. a true cognition of objects of which we have no experience in the past. The method of knowledge must be concerned in knowing what has not been previously known. It has no new contents but refers only to the already acquired contents of knowledge.(yathaarthamagrhitagraahitknaanam pranam iti SD pg 45) Thus pramana is that which gives us new knowledge, i.e. a true knowledge of the past (anadhigataarthaabhutarthanischayatmakam pramanam SD pg 123)

Prabhakara Mimamsikas, define prama or valid knowledge as immediate experience (Anubhuti). It is different from smriti or memory which is the impression of past experiences. (pramanamanubhutihi sa smrteranyaa PP, p.42). Hence according to them the truth of knowledge , praamaanya is guaranteed by its having the characteristic of immediacy.

Advaitha Drishtikona

Advaita vedanta also defines pramana as the operative cause (kaarana) of prama or ture knowledge. It defines prama in two ways. First, prama means knowledge that has both the characteristics of novelty and uncontradictoriness. This means that true knowledge is uncontradicted and original, i.e. it gives us new information. Secondly, prama simply means uncontradicted knowledge of objects, excluding or including memory.

Samkhya and Yoga Drishtikona

Samkhya and Yoga concept of pramana is different and original from all the other mentioned views. Pathanjali of Yoga holds that pramana is the function of chitta. Samkhya considers knowledge as belonging to buddhi only, which though essentially is insentient, acts like a sentient entity when the sentience of Purusha is reflected upon it. Both these systems offer an original definition of pramana as the function of the buddhi or chitta.

Dasa Pramanas

There are ten kinds of Pramanas, but in the matter of recognizing different pramanas, different schools of Indian Philosophy adopted divergent schemes. The number of pramanas accepted by them vary from one to eight.

• Charvakas accept pratyaksha pramana (perception) only as a single means of knowledge.
• Vaiseshikas accept pratyaksha (perception) and anumana (inference).
• Samkhya, Yoga, Dvaita, Visishtaadvaita schools of Uttara Mimamsa recognize 3 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or aagama (verbal testimony) as the means of knowledge.
• Naiyaayikas recognize 4 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or aagama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison) as the means of knowledge.
• Prabhakara school of Purva Mimamsa accepts 5 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or aagama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison) and arthaapatti (presumption) as the means of knowledge.
• Kumarilabhatta school of Purva Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta of Uttara Mimamsa school both accept 6 pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), shabda or aagama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison), arthaapatti (presumption) and abhaava (negation or non-apprehension) as the means of knowledge.
• Pauranikas admit the above 6 with the addition of sambhava (probability or inclusion) and aitihya (tradition or rumour).
• Tantrikas recognize, along with the above 8, Chesta (indication) as the means of knowledge.
• A few other thinkers accept, along with these 9, pratibha (vivid imagination) as a source of knowledge.

Pramana Tattva

The tattva or the "true nature of", "the real knowledge about", "property really possessed by object", "assured cognition of an object" ; all these indicate an inquiry into the real state of things or objects. Both "Jnana" and "Prama" indicate knowledge, however

• Jnana means all kinds of knowledge, true or false. Example: there is a rope or snake.
• Yatharthajnana or Prama is when reality reveals true knowledge (valid knowledge).Example : knowledge of rope in a rope.
• Aprama is when reality reveals false knowledge (invalid knowledge). Example : knowledge of snake in a rope.

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object. Four basic factors make up the system of recognition.

Vatsyayana Bhashya

1. The Prama or Pramiti : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding
2. The Prameya : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge
3. The Pramaana : the chief instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge
4. The Pramaata : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of Arthatattva.

Pramana Parichaya

Pramanas though are ten in number, though 6 (Shadpramanas) of them are widely accepted though major schools of thought accept them variously

1. Pratyaksha (perception)
2. Anumana (inference)
3. Shabda or aagama (verbal testimony)
4. Upamana (comparison)
5. Arthaapatti (presumption)
6. Abhaava (negation or non-apprehension)

A brief description of all the Pramanas are as follows

Pratyaksha Pramana

Pratyaksha (Samskrit : ) pramana is made of two words Prati and Aksha. Meaning : In front of the eyes. Knowledge which is produced by the contact of a sense-organ with an object. Perception is a source of direct knowledge and leads one to apprehend the reality. All other means of knowledge are indirect sources of apprehending reality. Example: When the sense-organ, i.e. eye, comes in direct contact with a pot, there arises a perceptual knowledge of pot.

Pratyaksha pramana is the primary and fundamental of all the sources of valid knowledge and it is universally recognized so by all schools of philosophy. According to Nyaya , perception is not the only source of our knowledge, but is the basis of the other sources or means of knowledge.

sarvapramananam pratyakshapoorvaktavat (NVTT 1.1.3).

लक्षणप्रमाणाभ्यां हि वस्तु सिद्धिः ईु. ऴपो, ज. 2

Anumana Pramana

"avinabhaavena samyag parokshanubhavo anumanah,"  Meaning forming a conclusion based on inference about something is anumana pramana. Thus anumana depends on previous experiences and this knowledge follows other knowledge. Example : where there is smoke there is fire.

Shabda Pramana

Shabda literally means verbal knowledge. Shabda pramana is also called as Agama pramana, sastra pramana according to the school of thought. "sabdha vijnanata samyag sannikrsharta anubhavah agamaha" that evidence about objects realized by the power of words and sentences is called Shabhda pramana.  This knowledge depends on reliable authority and also on aakaksha, yogyata and aasatti of a sentence. Different sounds such as those arising from musical instruments and bamboos also contribute to the realization of this knowledge. "Agama," literally means "that which has come", contextually it means that evidence which is realized by the process of understanding scriptures from rishis who constitute reliable authority.  Agama pramanas are divided in two parts - Apaurusheya and Paurusheya. Vedas, upanishadas, puranas, dharma sastras, and smritis are "apaurusheya,” or of non human origin.   The words of rishis and elders constitute "paurusheya pramanas.   Basically paurusheya pramanas ultimately do not contradict the Vedas.

Shabda pramana is designated in various ways by the different schools of Indian system. Thus, it is "shabda", according to Naiyayikas, "Shastra" according to Mimaamsakas, "Aptavachana" according to Samkhyaists and "Aagama" to Vedantins.

Upamana Pramana

The knowledge of similarity is generated by Upamana. This knowledge arises by the use of comparison of two things and the presence of some common factors in a thing. However, the word Upamana has been translated variously as comparison, analogy, identification, knowledge by similarity and knowledge by assimilation. It is derived from the words Upa meaning saadrisya or similarity and maana meaning cognition.

A person, who has perceived a cow in a town goes to a forest, and perceives a wild cow. He has an apprehension "this animal is similar to a cow" owing to the meeting of his eyes with the animal.. This knowledge of similarity of a cow with a wild cow is acquired by comparison.

Arthaapatti Pramana

Arthapatti is the presumption of something for the explanation of a known fact. The word arthaapatti gies under various translations as presumption, postulation, supposition, implication, and assumption. When a given or perceived fact cannot be explained without some other fact we have to presuppose or postulate the existence of this other fact even though we do not perceive it. Example : when a particular person named Chaitra, known to be alive, is not found in his house, it is assumed that he must be somewhere outside. What is presumed is said to be a distinct source of knowledge.

Anupalabdhi Pramana

Knowledge by which we immediately cognize the non-existence of an object, e.g. absence of rainfall indicates that the connection of cloud and the wind has not happened.

References

1. Samkhya Yoga Epistemology
2. Sayanamadhavacharya. (1906). Sarvadarshana Sangraha Vol 1 Anandashrama Mudranalaya as given in https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.242224/2015.242224.Sarva-Darshana#page/n3/mode/1up
3. Pt. Vasudev Shastri, Abhayankar (1951) Sarvadarsana Samgraha of Sayana Madhava Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute