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Samkhya or Sankhya (Sanskrit: सांख्य, IAST: sāṃkhya) is one of the six āstika (orthodox) schools of Hindu philosophy.[1][2][3] It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, and it was influential on other schools of Indian philosophy.[4] Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepts three of six pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These include pratyakṣa (perception), anumāṇa (inference) and śabda (āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[5][6][7] Sometimes described as one of the rationalist school of Indian philosophy, this ancient school's reliance on reason was neither exclusive nor strong.[8][9]
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Samkhya sashtra or Samkhya (Samskrit: साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्) is one of the '''Shad Darshanas.''' Kapila Muni is the founder of Samkhya Darsana. The word Samkhya means number. The Samkhya system gives an enumeration of the twenty five principles of universe<ref name=":0">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 202-216 </ref>.
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== परिचयः || Introduction ==
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In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya philosophy is based on systematic enumeration and rational examination. Samkhya (साङ्ख्य) means "number" used in the sense of thinking and counting. Thinking is with reference to basic principles or Knowledge of Self. Counting refers to the twenty-four principles and others.<ref name=":1">Jha, Ganganatha (1965) ''[http://theosnet.net/dzyan/hindu/samkhya_karika_and_tattva-kaumudi_1934.pdf The Tattva-Kaumudi, Vachaspati Mishra's Commentary on the Samkhya Karika.]'' Poona : Oriental Book Agency</ref>
  
Samkhya is strongly dualist.[10][11][12] Sāmkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities; puruṣa (consciousness) and prakṛti (matter). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakṛti in some form.[13] This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi ("intellect") and ahaṅkāra (ego consciousness). The universe is described by this school as one created by purusa-prakṛti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[13] During the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called liberation, or kaivalya, by the Samkhya school.[14]
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Thus, the school specifies the number and nature of the ultimate constituents of the Universe and thereby imparts knowledge of reality. The term also means "perfect knowledge. Hence it is a system of perfect knowledge.<ref name=":2">Samkhya Paper By Sri. Umapati Nath Published in Academia</ref> The main tenets in this school of philosophy are as follows 
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* Samkhya is strongly dualist accepting the roles of Prakrti  (प्रकृतिः) and Purusha (पुरुषः) in the Creation of this Universe.  
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* Samkhya siddhanta accepts that enumeration of truth can be done by using three of six accepted pramanas (प्रमाणाः proofs).
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* The Trigunas exist in all life forms in different proportions.
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* It 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles; and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the purusha or soul.
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* The evolutionary process involves Pradhana (Prakruti), Purusha, Mahat (Buddhi), Ahankaraara, Pancha Jnanendriyas, Pancha Karmendriyas, Panchatanmatras, Panchabhutas and Manas
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* While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, a key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that Yoga school accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal deity".
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* The existence of Supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered very relevant by the Samkhya philosophers.
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* Samkhya school considers moksha (मोक्ष) as a natural quest of every soul.
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== Founder - Kapila Maharshi ==
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Maharshi Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school.  
  
The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya philosophers. Sāṃkhya denies the final cause of Ishvara (God).[15] While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other scholars.[16][17] A key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars,[17][18] is that Yoga school accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god".[19]
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Bhagavata purana refers to Kapila as an incarnation of Bhagavan, as do the Pancharatra texts who allude to him as the incarnation of Bhagavan Srihari.  
  
Samkhya is known for its theory of guṇas (qualities, innate tendencies).[20] Guṇa, it states, are of three types: sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; rajas is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three guṇas, but in different proportions. The interplay of these guṇas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.[21][22] The Samkhya theory of guṇas was widely discussed, developed and refined by various schools of Indian philosophies, including Buddhism.[23] Samkhya's philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of Hindu ethics.[4]
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Mahabharata describes him as Bhagavan Hari and Vishnu (3.47.18), with Vasudeva (3.107.31) and with Krishna and also describes him as a great rishi who reduced the sons of Sagara into ashes by his wrath.  
  
Contents  [hide]
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Bhagavadgita mentions Bhagavan Srikrishna saying that of the seers he is Kapila rishi (10.26).  
1 Etymology
 
2 Historical development
 
2.1 Origins
 
2.2 Founders
 
2.3 Emergence as a distinct philosophy
 
2.4 Vedic influences
 
2.5 Upanishadic influences
 
2.6 Buddhist and Jainist influences
 
3 Source material
 
3.1 Texts
 
3.2 Other sources
 
3.3 Lost textual references
 
4 Philosophy
 
4.1 Epistemology
 
4.2 Dualism
 
4.2.1 Puruṣa
 
4.2.2 Prakṛti
 
4.3 Evolution
 
4.4 Liberation or mokṣa
 
4.5 Causality
 
5 Atheism
 
5.1 Arguments against Ishvara's existence
 
5.2 Textual references
 
6 Reception
 
7 Influence on other schools
 
7.1 On Indian philosophies
 
7.2 On Yoga
 
7.3 On Tantra
 
8 See also
 
9 Notes
 
10 References
 
11 Sources
 
12 Further reading
 
13 External links
 
Etymology[edit]
 
Samkhya (सांख्य), also referred to as Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya, is a Sanskrit word that, depending on the context, means "to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate, deliberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, relating to number, rational."[24] In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya refers to the philosophical school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration and rational examination.[25]
 
  
Historical development[edit]
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Mahabharata also identifies Kapila with the Fourth fire. (Mahabharata 3.220.21) 
The word samkhya means empirical or relating to numbers.[26] Although the term had been used in the general sense of metaphysical knowledge before,[27] in technical usage it refers to the Samkhya school of thought that evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries CE.[28] The Samkhya system is called so because "it 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles; and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the puruṣa or soul."[26]
 
  
Origins[edit]
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Shvetashvara Upanishad (Shve. Upan. 6.13) 
  
King Amsuman and the yogic sage Kapila.
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Though the use of 'Kapila' and 'Samkhya' is first found in Shvetashvara Upanishad तत्कारणं साङ्ख्ययोगाधिगम्यं ज्ञात्वा देवं मुच्यते सर्वपाशैः ॥ १३ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 6.13) yet Samkhya reflections appear in Rigveda and other Upanishads proving the antiquity of this Shastra.<ref name=":1" />
Some 19th and 20th century scholars suggested that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins. Richard Garbe stated in 1898, "The origin of the Sankhya system appears in the proper light only when we understand that in those regions of India which were little influenced by Brahmanism the first attempt had been made to solve the riddles of the world and of our existence merely by means of reason. For the Sankhya philosophy is, in its essence, not only atheistic but also inimical to the Veda."[29] Dandekar, similarly wrote in 1968, "The origin of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic non-Aryan thought complex".[30]
 
  
Some scholars disagreed with this view. Arthur Keith, for example in 1925, stated, "Samkhya owes its origin to the Vedic-Upanisadic-epic heritage is quite evident,"[31] and "Samkhya is most naturally derived out of the speculations in the Vedas, Brahmanas and the Upanishads."[32]
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Names of twenty-six Samkhya teachers are met with in the Smritis, Mahabharata, the Karikas etc. They are as follows: Kapila, Asuri, Panchashika,  Vindhyavasa or Vindhyavasaka, Varshanjna, Jaigishavya, Vodhu, Asitadevala or Devala, Sanaka,  Sanandana, Sanatkumara, Bhrgu, Sukra, Kashyapa, Parasara, Garga, Gautama, Narada, Arshtisena, Agastya, Pulastya, Harita, Uluka Valmiki, Suka.<ref name=":1" />
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==== Vedic and Upanishad Influences ====
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The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, the karikas, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. The earliest mention of dualism is in the Rigveda, नासदीय सूक्त || Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe): Rigveda 10.129 hymn is one of the roots of the Samkhya.  
  
Johnston in 1937, analyzed then available Hindu and Buddhist texts for the origins of Samkhya, then wrote "the origin lay in the analysis of the individual undertaken in the Brahmanas and earliest Upanishads, at first with a view to assuring the efficacy of the sacrificial rites and later in order to discover the meaning of salvation in the religious sense and the methods of attaining it. Here – in Kaushitaki Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad – the germ are to be found (of) two of the main ideas of classical Samkhya."[33]
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The other Indian texts that mention Kapila and Samkhya include<ref name=":1" />
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* Rigveda 1.164.20 - 1.164.22 emphasizes the duality between सत् || sat (existence) and असत् || asat (non-existence) in the Nasadiya Sukta similar to the व्यक्त-अव्यक्त || vyakta–avyakta (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymns about Purusha in Rigveda may also have influenced Samkhya. The Samkhya notion of buddhi or महत् || mahat is similar to the notion of Hiranyagarbha (हिरण्यगर्भ), which appears in both the Rigveda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.
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* Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Katha, Mundaka, Maitrayani, Prasha Upanishads and Manusmriti in various places mention the concepts of Samkhya. Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya, can be traced to the verses in sixth chapter of Chandogya Upanishad which emphasize the primacy of सत् || sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chandogya and Shvetashvatara Upanishads. The concept of ahamkara in Samkhya can be traced back to the notion of ahamkara in chapters 1.2 and 1.4 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and chapter 7.25 of the Chandogya Upanishad.
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* Mahabharata and the Puranas, fully reflect Samkhya philosophy. The mention of five gross elements, the twenty four categories in their manifested or unmanifested character and the three gunas is made in Vanaparva of Mahabharata (211. 1 - 8). The distinction between Prakrti and Purusha has been extensively expounded in Santi Parva (285. 33-40) of Mahabharata.
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* Bhagavadgita discusses the Samkhya concepts very lucidly which is named Samkhya Yoga (Chap. 2). 
  
More recent scholarship offers another perspective. Ruzsa in 2006,[34] for example, states, "Sāṅkhya has a very long history. Its roots go deeper than textual traditions allow us to see. The ancient Buddhist Aśvaghoṣa (in his Buddha-Carita) describes Arāḍa Kālāma, the teacher of the young Buddha (ca. 420 B.C.E.) as following an archaic form of Sāṅkhya."[34]
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== साङ्ख्यसिद्धान्तम् ॥ Samkhya Siddhantam - Core Concepts ==
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The Samkhya system discusses an original primordial Tattva or principle called Prakrti, that which evolves or produces or brings forth (Prakaroti) everything else.    
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==== Objective of Samkhya Philosophy ====
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The enquiry into this system of philosophy is to find out the means for eradicating the three sorts of pain, namely
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# आद्ध्यात्मिक || Internal or Adhyatmika (This can be of further two types - Physical and Mental.
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## Physical Pains: These are caused due to imbalance of Vaata, Pitta and Kapha. The Tri-Doshas as they are called, are not in harmony causing different illnesses. 
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## Mental Pains: These are caused due to various dispositions such as काम, क्रोध, मद, मोह, लोभ, भय, मत्सर, राग, द्वेष. Various mental diseases, worries, tensions, depression are examples of this pain. 
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# आदिभौतिक || External or Adhibhautika (These are pains caused due to this physical world. Problems caused due to thorns, animals, scorpion, thunder, cold, heat, rain etc.).
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# आदिदैविक || Celestial or Adhidaivika (These include व्याधि due to Yakshas, Rakshasas, Sudden problems, still born child, unseen problems in important events, विघ्न, due to दैव etc.)
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Pain is an embarrassment. It stands in the way of doing Yoga Sadhna and attaining Moksha or release. According to Samkhya one who has the knowledge of the twenty five principles, annihilates this pain. The ultimate cessation of the three kinds of pain is the final goal of life.<ref name=":0" />
  
Anthony Warder in 2009, summarizes that Samkhya and Mīmāṃsā schools appear to have been established before Sramana traditions in India (~500 BCE), and he traces Samkhya origins to be Vedic. Samkhya, writes Warder, "has indeed been suggested to be non-Brahmanical and even anti-Vedic in origin, but there is no tangible evidence for that except that it is very different than most Vedic speculation – but that is (itself) quite inconclusive. Speculations in the direction of the Samkhya can be found in the early Upanishads."[35]
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Pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow really belong to Buddhi or the intellect and the mind. The Purusha or Self is by its nature free from them all.  But due to Ajnana (ignorance) it fails to distinguish itself from the mind and intellect, and identifies itself with the body and senses. It is this want of discrimination or feeling of identity (aviveka) between the self and the mind-body that is the cause of all pain and troubles. Freedom from this suffering comes from knowledge of the distinction between the two (vivekajnana) and ends the suffering.<ref name=":2" />
  
Mikel Burley in 2012, writes Richard Garbe's 19th century view on Samkhya's origin are weak and implausible.[36] Burley states that India's religio-cultural heritage is complicated, and likely experienced a non-linear development.[37] Samkhya is not necessarily non-Vedic nor pre-Vedic, nor a "reaction to Brahmanic hegemony", states Burley.[37] It is most plausibly, in its origins a lineage that grew and evolved from a combination of ascetic traditions and Vedic "guru (teacher) and disciples". Burley suggests the link between Samkhya and Yoga as likely root of this evolutionary origin during the Vedic era of India.[37]
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====  द्वैत || Dvaita Concept of Purusha and Prakrti  ====
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Samkhya denies that anything can be produced out of nothing. It assumes the reality of Purusha and Prakrti , the knowing Self and the objects known. Prakrti  and Purusha are Anadi (beginningless) and Ananta (infinite). Non-discrimination between the two is the cause for birth and death. Discrimination between Prakrti  and Purusha gives Mukti (salvation). Both Purusha and Prakrti  are Sat (real). Purusha is Asanga (unattached). He is consciousness, all-pervading and eternal. Prakrti  is doer and enjoyer. Souls are countless.<ref name=":0" />
  
Between 1938 and 1969, two previously unknown manuscript editions of Yuktidipika were discovered and published.[38] Yuktidipika is an ancient review and has emerged as the most important commentary on Samkhyakarika – itself an ancient key text of the Samkhya school.[39] This discovery and recent scholarship[38] by Paul Hacker and others suggests Samkhya with well established epistemology, ontology and cosmology existed earlier than previously thought, sometime in the 1st millennium BCE and that many more ancient scholars contributed to the origins of Samkhya in ancient India, than were previously known. However, almost nothing is preserved about the centuries when these ancient Samkhya scholars lived.[38] Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state that the newly discovered literature hints, but does not conclusively prove, that Samkhya may be the oldest school of Indian philosophy, one that evolved over time and influenced major schools, as well as Buddhism and Jainism.[38] These scholars place the earliest references to Samkhya ideas in the Vedic period literature of India (~1500 BCE to ~400 BCE).[39]
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Samkhya is strongly Dvaita (द्वैत । dualist) based on the Upanishadic teaching of the Brahman there are two types of descriptions about Brahman;  Purusha (consciousness) and Prakrti (प्रकृति । matter). On one hand, Brahman is described as Kutasta (unchangeable or immutable) as for example, in Gita, Brahman is described as the eternal principle which the fire cannot burn, wind cannot dry etc. On the other hand, Brahman is presented as changing principle and manifests into many forms to become the world. Here the example of spider is presented; the spider spins its web from its own resources, so also Brahman is the only reality and from him all things come forth. In order to solve this contradiction,  Samkhya proposes two Ultimate Principles, Purusha (unchanging Self) and Prakrti  (changing matter). Therefore, Samkhya is dualistic realism as it considers that both matter and spirit are equally real. It is also pluralistic because of its teaching that Purusha is not one but many.<ref name=":1" />
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==== तत्वानि || Fourfold Classification of the Twenty Five Tattvas  ====
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The Samkhya gives a description of categories based on their respective productive efficiency viz:<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
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# प्रकृति || Prakrti  (Productive)
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# प्रकृति-विकृति || Prakrti - Vikriti (Productive and Produced). These are seven in number.
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# विकृति || Vikriti (Productions). These are sixteen in number.
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# अनुभयरूपम् || Anubhayarupa (Neither Productive nor Produced). This is Purusha.
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This fourfold classification includes all the twenty-five principles or Tattvas.
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* Prakrti  or Nature or Pradhana (chief) is purely productive. It is the root of all. It is not a product. It is a creative force, evolver, and producer.
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* The Productive and Produced include the Seven principles —
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** बुद्धि (Buddhi, intellect), अहंकार (Ahankara, egoism) and the five तन्मात्र [[Tanmatras]] (subtle essences - the essence of sight, smell, taste, touch and sound).
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** Buddhi is productive, as Ahankara is evolved out of it. It is produced also, as it itself is evolved out of Prakrti . Egoism is a production, as it is derived from intellect. It is productive, as it gives origin to the five Tanmatras. The subtle essences (Tanmatras) are derived from egoism. Hence they are productions. They give origin to the five elements. Hence they are productive.
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* The Productions include the sixteen principles, the ten organs, the mind and the five elements. They are unproductive, because none of them can give birth to a substance essentially different from itself.
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* The Purusha or Spirit is neither a production, nor is it productive. It is without attributes.
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==== प्रमाणाः || Pramanas ====
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In order to prove the tattvas, different kinds of proof (means of right cognition) are to be described. Samkhya philosophy is based on systematic enumeration and uses three of the [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|six pramanas]] (प्रमाणाः । pramanas or proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Dasgupta, Surendranath (2012 7th Reprint) ''A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 1.'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref> These include<blockquote>दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनं च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धि: प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote><blockquote>dr̥ṣṭamanumānamāptavacanaṁ ca sarvapramāṇasiddhatvāt । trividhaṁ pramāṇamiṣṭaṁ prameyasiddhi: pramāṇāddhi ॥ 4 ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)</blockquote>
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* प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणाः || pratyaksha-pramana (perception)
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* अनुमानप्रमाणाः  || anumana-pramana (inference) 
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* आप्तवचनम्  || aptavacana (word/testimony of reliable sources) Vachana being शब्दप्रमाणाः । sabda-pramana.
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The Word Apta means fit or right. It is applied to the Vedas or inspired teachers. [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya Darsana]] accepts four kinds of proofs: प्रत्यक्ष, अनुमान , उपमान, शब्द. The Mimamsakas recognise six kinds of proofs.
  
Founders[edit]
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Unlike few other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas as epistemically proper: उपमान || Upamana (comparison and analogy), अर्थापत्ति || Arthaapatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or अनुपलब्दि || Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).
Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school.[40] However, it is unclear in which century of 1st millennium BCE Kapila lived.[41] Kapila appears in Rigveda, but context suggests that the word means "reddish brown color". Both Kapila as a "seer" and the term Samkhya appear in hymns of section 5.2 in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (~300 BCE), suggesting Kapila's and Samkhya philosophy's origins may predate it. Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila; for example, Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.16.1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to Kapila, called Kapila Sannyasa Vidha.[41] A 6th century CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently state Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school, mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching, and a much later scholar named Pancasikha as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas. Isvarakrsna is identified in these texts as the one who summarized and simplified Samkhya theories of Pancasikha, many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in the form that was then translated into Chinese by Paramartha in the 6th century CE.[41]
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== प्रकृतिः || Prakrti  the Cause ==
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Prakrti  means that which is primary, that which precedes what is made. It comes from 'Pra' (before) and `Kri' (to make). It resembles Vedantic concept of Maya. Thus, the sense of unity is seen in the single source of origin of the world or material manifestation. It is called the Root and is described as the Pradhana, that in which all things are contained, and as Prakrti, the mother of all things.<ref name=":4">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>
  
Emergence as a distinct philosophy[edit]
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Prakrti  is eternal, all pervading, immovable. It is one. It has no cause, but is the cause of all effects. Prakrti is independent and uncaused, while the products are caused and dependent. Prakrti  depends only on the activity of its own constituent Gunas (metaphysical properties).<ref name=":0" />
In the beginning this was Self alone, in the shape of a person (puruṣa). He looking around saw nothing but his Self (Atman). He first said, "This is I", therefore he became I by name.
 
  
—Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1[42][43]
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One pure ''Prakrti'' is made of the three Gunas namely ''Sattva, Rajas and Tamas''. The three ''Gunas'' with different permutations and combinations give rise to the varied substances. Accordingly, evolution cannot be consumed from ''Prakṛti'' alone or from ''Puruṣa'' alone.<ref name=":3">Banarjee, Debashri. Paper : ''Different tenets of Indian Philosophy; As conceived from Indian Point of View'' Published by Academia</ref>
The early texts of the Vedic period,[44] contain references to elements of Samkhya philosophy. However, the Samkhya ideas had not distilled and congealed into a distinct, complete philosophy.[39] The early, proto-Samkhya phase was followed by early Upanishads, about 800 to 700 BCE, wherein ascetic spirituality and monastic (sramana and yati) traditions came in vogue in India. It is in this period, state Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter, that ancient scholars combined proto-Samkhya ideas with a systematic methodology of reasoning (epistemology) and began distilling concepts of spiritual knowledge (vidya, jnana, viveka), making Samkhya a more emerging, comprehensive philosophy.[45] These developing ideas are found in texts such as the Chandogya Upanishad.[45]
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==== Proof for Existence of Prakrti  ====
 +
Samkhya gives five proofs for the existence of Prakrti.<ref name=":2" />
  
Sometime about the 5th century BCE, Samkhya thought from various sources started coalescing into a distinct, complete philosophy.[46] Philosophical texts such as the Katha Upanishad in verses 3.10-13 and 6.7-11 describe a well defined concept of puruṣa and other concepts of Samkhya,[47] The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in chapter 6.13 describes Samkhya with Yoga philosophy, and Bhagavad Gita in book 2 provides axiological implications of Samkhya, therewith providing textual evidence of Samkhyan terminology and concepts.[48] Katha Upanishad conceives the Purusha (cosmic spirit, consciousness) as same as the individual soul (Ātman, Self).[47][49] The Mokshadharma chapter of Shanti Parva (Book of Peace) in the Mahabharata epic, composed between 400 BCE to 400 CE, explains Samkhya ideas along with other extant philosophies, and then lists numerous scholars in recognition of their philosophical contributions to various Indian traditions, and therein at least three Samkhya scholars can be recognized – Kapila, Asuri and Pancasikha.[38][50] The 12th chapter of the Buddhist text Buddhacarita suggests Samkhya philosophical tools of reliable reasoning were well formed by about 5th century BCE.[38]
+
a) '''Bhedanam parimanat:''' (effects are limited and many) All particular objects of the world, from Buddhi to Panchabhutas, are limited and dependent on one another. The finite and limited principle cannot be the cause of the Universe. So there is an unlimited and independent cause for their existence. It is the Prakrti  which is infinite, unlimited, independent and all-pervading source of the universe.
  
Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for first time in chapter 6.13 of the Shvetashvatra Upanishad,[48] as samkhya-yoga-adhigamya (literally, "to be understood by proper reasoning and spiritual discipline").[51] Bhagavad Gita identifies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge.[52] The three gunas are also mentioned in the Gita, though they are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya.[53] The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the devotion (bhakti) of theistic schools and the impersonal Brahman of Vedanta.[54]
+
b) '''Samanvayat:''' (harmony) All worldly things possess certain common characteristics due to which pleasure, pain and indifference are produced. Therefore,they must have a common cause which is composed of these three gunas and that is Prakrti .
  
According to Ruzsa, about 2,000 years ago "Sāṅkhya became the representative philosophy of Hindu thought in Hindu circles",[34] influencing all strands of the Hindu tradition and Hindu texts.[34]
+
c) '''Karyatah pravrttescha:''' (effect is produced due to action) All effects proceed from the activity of some cause which contains their potentiality within it.  The world of objects which are effects must be implicitly contained in some world-cause. And that is Prakrti .  
  
Vedic influences[edit]
+
d) '''Karanakaryavibhagat:''' (cause and effects are separate/different) The effect is the explicit and cause is the implicit state of the same process. The effect, therefore points to a world-cause where they are potentially contained. And that is Prakrti .
The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, the Sāṅkhyakārikā, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.[46][55] The earliest mention of dualism is in the Rigveda, a text that was compiled in the second millennium BCE.,[56] in various chapters.
 
  
Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe):
+
e) '''Avibhagat vaishvarupyasya:''' (unity) In the universe everything has a purpose and thus the whole universe is a unified whole. Therefore the unity of the universe points to a single cause and that cause is called Prakrti . One should not imagine a cause of this ultimate cause, for that will land us in the fallacy of infinite regress. 
 +
==== Transformation of Prakrti  ====
 +
This creation, from the intellect down to the elements is brought about by the transformation of Prakrti . Having observed the effects, the cause (Prakrti ) is inferred. Prakrti  is imperceptible from its subtlety. It must therefore be inferred from its effects.
  
There was neither non-existence nor existence then;
+
Egoism is a form of intellect. it is the matter from which the senses and the rudimental elements are formed. The gross elements are forms of the rudimental elements. Intellect, egoism and the five subtle rudiments or Tanmatras are the effects of Prakrti . Prakrti  is the basis of all objective existence. Prakrti  creates only when it comes into union with Purusha.<ref name=":0" />
Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond;
+
== गुणः || Gunas ==
What stirred? Where? In whose protection?
+
Samkhya is known for its theory of gunas (गुणः। quality, innate tendencies). Guna, it states, are of three types: Satva, Rajas and Tamas.
 +
* सत्त्वगुणः || Sattva being harmony, illuminating, positive, pure.
 +
* रजोगुणः || Rajas is one of activity, motion, chaotic, passion, potentially good or bad action.
 +
* तमोगुणः  || Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative
 +
Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions.
  
There was neither death nor immortality then;
+
Prakrti  is composed of three Gunas of forces, called Sattva (purity, light, harmony), Rajas (passion, activity, motion) and Tamas (inertia, darkness, inertness, inactivity). It is to be noted that these Gunas are '''not''' the Nyaya-Vaiseshika Gunas. They are the actual substances or ingredients, of which Prakrti  is constituted. They make up the whole world evolved out of Prakrti. They are not conjoined in equal quantities, but in varying proportions, one or the other being in excess. Just as Sat-Chit-Ananda is the Vedantic triad, so also the Gunas are the Samkhyan triad.<ref name=":0" /> However the Guṇa is not the quality of ''Prakrti;'' on the contrary they are constituents of one pure ''Prakṛti.''
No distinguishing sign of night nor of day;
+
==== Interaction Between the Gunas ====
That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse;
+
Interaction between the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas  leads to Evolution. The three Gunas are never separate. They support one another. They intermingle with one another. They form the very substance of Prakrti . All objects are composed of the three Gunas. The Gunas act on one another. Then there is evolution or manifestation. The Gunas are the objects.<ref name=":0" />
Other than that there was nothing beyond.
+
==== Characteristics of the Three Gunas ====
 +
The three ''Guṇas'' are so subtle that they are imperceptible but can be inferred through the experiences that they give; which is pleasure, pain, dullness and indifference. They serve the purpose of illumination, activity and restraint, and perform the function of mutual dominance, dependence, transformation and are in constant association with one another. The role of ''Guna'' is manifestation of the ''Prakrti''.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" />
 +
* Sattva always remains in equilibrium. When Sattva prevails, there is peace or tranquillity. The word ‘Sat’ ordinarily means existence or Reality. It also means goodness, purity and bliss. It is characterized by ''Sukha (peace)'' and ''Prakāśa (illumination)''. Sattva Guṇa of ''Prakṛti'' gives rise to calmness of the nature and mind.<ref name=":3" />
 +
* Rajas is activity which is expressed as Raga-Dvesha, likes or dislikes, love or hatred attraction or repulsion. Thus, ''Rajas Guṅa'' represents life of enjoyment and whatever is restless. In turn the mind gets stressful and leads to fatigue causing pain and disturbance. ''Rajo'' ''Guṇa'' is the basis of everything which evolves and causes pain along with happiness.
 +
* Tamas is that binding force with a tendency to lethargy, sloth and foolish actions. It causes delusion or non-discrimination. Therefore ''Tamo Guṇa'' represents whatever is indifferent and passive. It helps to regain vigour and vitality in the form of sleep. It is the basis of everything, which causes dullness, darkness and ignorance.<ref name=":3" />
 +
When Sattva is predominant, it overpowers Rajas and Tamas. When Rajas is dominant, it overpowers Sattva and Tamas. When Tamas is predominant, it overpowers Rajas and Sattva.<ref name=":0" />
 +
==== Jiva is Affected by the Three Gunas ====
 +
There are three Gunas in every man. When Sattva prevails, he is calm and tranquil. He reflects and meditates. At other times, Rajas prevails in him and he does various sorts of worldly activities. He is passionate and active. Sometimes, Tamas prevails. He becomes lazy, dull, inactive and careless.
  
Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden;
+
A Sattvic man is virtuous. Sattva makes a man divine and noble, Rajas makes him thoroughly human and selfish, and Tamas makes him bestial and ignorant.<ref name=":0" />
Without distinctive marks, this all was water;
+
== पुरुषः ॥ The Purusha ==
That which, becoming, by the void was covered;
+
The Purusha or the Self is beyond Prakrti. The qualities of Purusha are as follows<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><blockquote>तस्माच्च विपर्यासात् सिद्धं साक्षित्वमस्य पुरुषस्य । कैवल्यं माध्यस्थ्यं द्रष्टृत्वमकर्तृभावश्च ॥ १९ ॥ (Samk. 19)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote><blockquote>tasmācca viparyāsāt siddhaṁ sākṣitvamasya puruṣasya । kaivalyaṁ mādhyasthyaṁ draṣṭr̥tvamakartr̥bhāvaśca ॥ 19 ॥ (Samk. 19)</blockquote>
That One by force of heat came into being;
+
* The purusha is not the doer. It is the witness (साक्षित्वम्).
 +
* It is solitary (कैवल्यं) and indifferent (माध्यस्थ्यं).
 +
* It is a spectator (द्रष्टृत्वम्) and not an agent of action (अकर्तृभावः) is discriminative and non-prolific.
 +
* It is Intelligent and subjective.
 +
* It is without attributes and without qualities.
 +
* It is subtle and omnipresent.
 +
* It is beyond mind, intellect and the senses.
 +
* It is beyond time, space and causality.
 +
* It is the eternal seer.
 +
* It is perfect and immutable.
 +
* It is pure consciousness (Chidrupa).
 +
It is eternally separate from the Prakrti. Purusha is without beginning or end. The Purusha is like a crystal without any colour. It appears to be coloured by the different colours which are placed before it. It is not material. It is not a result of combination. Hence it is immortal.
 +
==== बहुपुरुषवादः ॥ Plurality of Purusha ====
 +
The Purushas or souls are infinite in number, according to the Samkhya. There are many Purushas. If the Purushas were one, all would become free if anyone attained Moksha.
  
Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it?
+
The different souls are fundamentally identical in nature. There is no movement for the Purusha. It does not go anywhere when it attains freedom or release. Souls exist eternally separate from each other and from Prakrti . Each soul retains its individuality. It remains unchanged through all transmigrations. Each soul is a witness of the act of a separate creation, without taking part in the act.<ref name=":0" />
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
+
==== Proof for Existence of the Purusha ====
Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
+
That the Purusha or the pure consciousness exists is proved as follows<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6" /><blockquote>संघातपरार्थत्वात् त्रिगुणादिविपर्यादधिष्ठानात् । पुरुषोऽस्ति भोक्तृभावात् कैवल्यार्थं प्रवृत्तेश्च ॥ १७ ॥ (Samk. Kari. 17)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote><blockquote>saṁghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyādadhiṣṭhānāt । puruṣo'sti bhoktr̥bhāvāt kaivalyārthaṁ pravr̥tteśca ॥ 17 ॥ (Samk. Kari. 17)</blockquote>'''संघातपरार्थत्वात्''' ॥'''Sanghataparthatvat :''' Intelligence cannot belong to the intellect, because the intellect is material and is the effect of Prakrti  which is non-intelligent. If intelligence is absent in a cause, it cannot manifest itself in the effect. Therefore, there must be a distinct principle of intelligence and this distinct principle is Purusha or the Self. 
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
 
  
Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;
+
'''भोक्तृभावात् ॥ Bhoktrbhavat :''' There must be a Supervisor over and above Pradhana or Prakrti . The Supervisor is Purusha or the Self. Prakrti  and its products are objects of enjoyment. There must exist an enjoyer who must be an intelligent principle. This intelligent enjoyer is Purusha or the Self. Just as chair and bench are for the use of another so also this body, senses and mind are for the use of the Self which is immaterial, as it is destitute of attributes and as it is beyond the Gunas.  
Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not;
 
Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows,
 
Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know.
 
  
—Rigveda 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer / Christian)[57] This hymn is one of the roots of the Samkhya.[58]
+
'''त्रिगुणादिविपर्याद ॥ Trigunadiviparyayat :''' The Purusha is the witness of the Gunas. The Gunas are the objects. Purusha is the witness-subject. Hence, it is not affected by pleasure, pain and delusion which are attributes of the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, respectively. If pain is natural to the Purusha and if the Purusha is not naturally free from the action of the Gunas, no salvation from rebirth is possible.<ref name=":0" />
At a mythical level, dualism is found in the Indra–Vritra myth of chapter 1.32 of the Rigveda.[59] Enumeration, the etymological root of the word Samkhya, is found in numerous chapters of the Rigveda, such as 1.164, 10.90 and 10.129.[58] Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state that the likely roots of philosophical premises, spirit-matter dualism, meditative themes and religious cosmology in Samkhya philosophy are in the hymns of 1.164 (Riddle Hymns) and 10.129 (Nasadiya Hymns).[58] However these hymns present only the outline of ideas, not specific Samkhya theories and these theories developed in a much later period.[58]
 
  
The Riddle hymns of the Rigveda, famous for their numerous enumerations, structural language symmetry within the verses and the chapter, enigmatic word play with anagrams that symbolically portray parallelism in rituals and the cosmos, nature and the inner life of man.[60] This hymn includes enumeration (counting) as well as a series of dual concepts cited by early Upanishads . For example, the hymns 1.164.2 - 1.164-3 mention "seven" multiple times, which in the context of other chapters of Rigveda have been interpreted as referring to both seven priests at a ritual and seven constellations in the sky, the entire hymn is a riddle that paints a ritual as well as the sun, moon, earth, three seasons, the transitory nature of living beings, the passage of time and spirit.[60][61]
+
'''कैवल्यार्थं प्रवृत्तेश्च ॥ Kaivalyartham pravrtteh :'''  The Purusha must be there because there is a tendency towards Isolation. Prakrti  operates towards the emancipation or isolation of itself from the Self which is the final goal of Purusha. 
 +
==== The Jiva ====
 +
The Jiva is the soul in union with the senses. It is limited by the body. It is endowed with egoism. The reflection of Purusha in the Buddhi or intellect appears as the ego or the empirical soul. It is associated with ignorance and Karma. It is subject to pleasure and pain action and its fruits, and rotates in the cycle of births and deaths.  
  
Seven to the one-wheeled chariot yoke the Courser; bearing seven names the single Courser draws it.
+
The Jiva is different from the Purusha, who is perfect. The Jiva must strive to attain the status of the Purusha. Every Jiva has in it the higher Purusha hidden within. It must become conscious of the real nature of the higher Purusha. Freedom or perfection is a return into one's true Self. It is the removal of an illusion which conceals one's true nature.<ref name=":0" />
Three-naved the wheel is, sound and undecaying, whereon are resting all these worlds of being.
 
The seven [priests] who on the seven-wheeled car are mounted have horses, seven in tale, who draw them onward.
 
Seven Sisters utter songs of praise together, in whom the names of the seven Cows are treasured.
 
Who hath beheld him as he [Sun/Agni] sprang to being, seen how the boneless One [spirit] supports the bony [body]?
 
Where is the blood of earth, the life, the spirit? Who will approach the one who knows, to ask this?
 
  
— Rigveda 1.164.2 - 1.164.4, [62]
+
Jiva (जीव । a living being) is that state in which Purusha is bonded to Prakrti . This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (बुद्धि । intellect) and Ahankara (अहङ्कार । ego consciousness). 
The chapter 1.164 asks a number of metaphysical questions, such as "what is the One in the form of the Unborn that created the six realms of the world?".[63][64] Dualistic philosophical speculations then follow in chapter 1.164 of the Rigveda, particularly in the well studied "allegory of two birds" hymn (1.164.20 - 1.164.22), a hymn that is referred to in the Mundaka Upanishad and other texts .[60][65][66] The two birds in this hymn have been interpreted to mean various forms of dualism: "the sun and the moon", the "two seekers of different kinds of knowledge", and "the body and the atman".[67][68]
+
==== Purusha in Different Philosophies ====
 +
Although there is a general agreement with regard to the existence of the Self, there is a wide divergence of opinion about its nature.<ref name=":2" />
  
Two Birds with fair wings, knit with bonds of friendship, embrace the same tree.
+
- Charvakas or materialists identify Self with the gross body, some with senses, mind, and life.
One of the twain eats the sweet fig; the other not eating keeps watch.
 
Where those fine Birds hymn ceaselessly their portion of life eternal, and the sacred synods,
 
There is the Universe's mighty Keeper, who, wise, hath entered into me the simple.
 
The tree on which the fine Birds eat the sweetness, where they all rest and procreate their offspring,
 
Upon its top they say the fig is sweetest, he who does not know the Father will not reach it.
 
  
— Rigveda 1.164.20 - 1.164.22, [69]
+
- Buddhists or emipiricists regard the Self as identical with the stream of consciousness.
The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and non-existence (asat) in the Nasadiya Sukta of the Rigveda is similar to the vyakta–avyakta (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymns about Puruṣa may also have influenced Samkhya.[70] The Samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of hiranyagarbha, which appears in both the Rigveda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[71]
 
  
Upanishadic influences[edit]
+
- Nyaya-Vaisheshikas and the Prabhakara Mimamsakas maintain that Self is an unconscious substance which may acquire the attribute of consciousness under certain conditions.
Higher than the senses, stand the objects of senses. Higher than objects of senses, stands mind. Higher than mind, stands intellect. Higher than intellect, stands the great self. Higher than the great self, stands Avyaktam. Higher than Avyaktam, stands Purusha. Higher than this, there is nothing. He is the final goal and the highest point. In all beings, dwells this Purusha, as Atman (soul), invisible, concealed. He is only seen by the keenest thought, by the sublest of those thinkers who see into the subtle.
 
  
—Katha Upanishad 3.10-13[72][73]
+
- The Kumarila Bhatta Mimamsakas think that the Self is a conscious entity which is partially hidden by ignorance, as appears from the imperfect and partial knowledge that men have of their selves.
The oldest of the major Upanishads (c. 900–600 BCE) contain speculations along the lines of classical Samkhya philosophy.[46] The concept of ahamkara in Samkhya can be traced back to the notion of ahamkara in chapters 1.2 and 1.4 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and chapter 7.25 of the Chāndogya Upaniṣad.[46] Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya, can be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chandogya and Shvetashvatara Upanishads.[74] Upanishadic sages Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni developed the idea that pure consciousness was the innermost essence of a human being. The purusha of Samkhya could have evolved from this idea. The enumeration of tattvas in Samkhya is also found in Taittiriya Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad and Yajnavalkya–Maitri dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.[75]
 
  
Buddhist and Jainist influences[edit]
+
- The Advaita Vedanta holds that the Self is pure eternal consciousness which is also blissful existence (sacchidananda svarupa).
Buddhism and Jainism had developed in eastern India by the 5th century BCE. It is probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya influenced each other. A prominent similarity between Buddhism and Samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering (dukkha) as the foundation for their respective soteriological theories, than other Indian philosophies.[76] However, suffering appears central to Samkhya in its later literature, which suggests a likely Buddhism influence. Elaide, however, presents the alternate theory that Samkhya and Buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time, benefitting from their mutual influence.[76]
 
  
Likewise, the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls (jiva) could have influenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya. However Hermann Jacobi, an Indologist, thinks that there is little reason to assume that Samkhya notion of Purushas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in Jainism. It is more likely, that Samkhya was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in various Vedic and non-Vedic schools.[76]
+
- But according to Samkhya the Self is different from the body and senses, the manas, buddhi. It is not of the world of objects. It is the subject of knowledge and without attributes.Consciousness is its very essence and not a mere quality of it.
 +
== The Process of Knowledge ==
 +
The process through which Purusha attains the discriminatory knowledge involves the interaction of Purusha with Buddhi and other constituents.<blockquote>अध्यवसायो बुद्धिर्धर्मो ज्ञानं विराग ऐश्वर्यम् । सात्त्विकमेतद्रूपं तामसमस्माद्विपर्यस्तम् ॥ २३ ॥ (Samk. 23)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote><blockquote>adhyavasāyo buddhirdharmo jñānaṁ virāga aiśvaryam । sāttvikametadrūpaṁ tāmasamasmādviparyastam ॥ 23 ॥ (Samk. 23)</blockquote>
  
This declared to you is the Yoga of the wisdom of Samkhya. Hear, now, of the integrated wisdom with which, Partha, you will cast off the bonds of karma.
+
==== Mahat or Buddhi ====
 +
The '''intellect''' is an instrument which receives the ideas and images conveyed through the organs of sense, and the mind, constructs them into a conclusive idea, and presents this idea to the Self. The function of the intellect is determination (Nischaya or Will). Before one engages in any matter, one first observes and considers, then one reflects and then determines. Then one proceeds to act. This ascertainment: "Such act is to be done by me" is the determination of the intellect (Adhyavasaya).<ref name=":0" />
  
—Bhagavad Gita 2.39[77]
+
Thus, Buddhi is defined as the determining Principle; Virtue, Wisdom, Dispassion and Power constitute its form (when affected by Sattva) and the reverse of these when affected by Tamas. The determination of the duty is the characteristic property of Buddhi - which appears as if endued with intelligence by contact with the intelligence of Purusha.<ref name=":6" />
Larson, Bhattacharya and Potter state it to be likely that early Samkhya doctrines found in oldest Upanishads (~700-800 BCE) provided the contextual foundations and influenced Buddhist and Jaina doctrines, and these became contemporaneous, sibling intellectual movements with Samkhya and other schools of Hindu philosophy.[78] This is evidenced, for example, by the references to Samkhya in ancient and medieval era Jaina literature.[79]
+
==== The Intellect and its Functions ====
 +
Tile intellect or the Buddhi is the most important of all the products of Prakrti . The senses present their objects to the intellect. The intellect exhibits them to the purusha. The intellect discriminates the difference between purusha and Prakrti . 
  
Source material[edit]
+
The intellect is the instrument or organ which is the medium between the other organs and the Self. All ideas derived from sensation, reflection, or consciousness are deposited in the chief or great instrument, intellect, before they can be made known to the Self. They convey impressions or ideas with the properties or effects of pleasure, pain and indifference, accordingly as they are influenced by the qualities of Sattva (purity), Rajas (passion) or Tamas (darkness).  
Texts[edit]
 
The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhya Karika (c. 200 CE[80] or 350–450 CE[54]) of Iśvarakṛṣṇa.[54] There were probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none of them are available today.[81] Iśvarakṛṣṇa in his Kārikā describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila, through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha to himself. The text also refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called Ṣaṣṭitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost.[54] The text was imported and translated into Chinese about the middle of the 6th century CE.[82] The records of Al Biruni, the Persian visitor to India in the early 11th century, suggests Samkhyakarika was an established and definitive text in India in his times.[83]
 
  
Samkhyakarika includes distilled statements on epistemology, metaphysics and soteriology of the Samkhya school. For example, the fourth to sixth verses of the text states it epistemic premises,[84]
+
The intellect appears to be intelligent on account of the reflection of Purusha which is very near to it, though by itself, it is really non-intelligent.   
 +
==== Ahankara  ====
 +
<blockquote>अभिमानोऽहंकार: तस्माद्विविध: प्रवर्तते सर्ग: । एकादशकश्च गणस्तन्मात्रपञ्चकश्चैव ॥ २४ ॥ (Samk. 24)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote><blockquote>abhimāno'haṁkāra: tasmādvividha: pravartate sarga: । ekādaśakaśca gaṇastanmātrapañcakaścaiva ॥ 24 ॥ (Samk. 24)</blockquote>Self-assertion is Ahamkara. From it proceeds the twofold evolution only; the elevenfold set and also the fivefold Tanmatras.
  
Perception, inference and right affirmation are admitted to be threefold proof; for they (are by all acknowledged, and) comprise every mode of demonstration. It is from proof that belief of that which is to be proven results.
+
All that is considered (alochita) and reasoned (mata) refers to me, in this I am competent,  all those objects of sense are for my sake only, this does not concern any one else but me, hence I am - such Abhimana, self assertion or consciousness by reference to oneself, from its having an uncommon or unique operation of its own, is called Ahamkara, by working upon which Buddhi determines that "this is to be done by me".<ref name=":4" />
  
Perception is ascertainment of particular objects. Inference, which is of three sorts, premises an argument, and deduces that which is argued by it. Right affirmation is true revelation (Apta vacana and Sruti, testimony of reliable source and the Vedas).
+
Agency belongs to '''egoism'''—the Ahankara or the I-maker—which is itself a product of Prakrti , but not to the Purusha or Self who is always a silent witness.   
 +
==== Manas ====
 +
The '''Mind or Manas''' is both an organ of sensation and action. The Indriyas or senses receive simple impressions from without. The mind cooperates with the senses, and the impressions are perceived.<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>उभयात्मकमत्र मन: सङ्कल्पमिन्द्रियं च साधर्म्यात् । गुणपरिणामविशेषान्नानात्वं बाह्यभेदाश्च ॥ २७ ॥ (Samk. 27)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote><blockquote>ubhayātmakamatra mana: saṅkalpamindriyaṁ ca sādharmyāt । guṇapariṇāmaviśeṣānnānātvaṁ bāhyabhedāśca ॥ 27 ॥ (Samk. 27)</blockquote>Among the Indriyas, Manas possess the nature of both. It is deliberative and is as well an Indriya (सङ्कल्पमिन्द्रियं च) as it is homogeneous with the rest. Sankalpam is the the uncommon or distinctive function of the Manas. From the materials of the senses, Manas creates percepts, which are transferred to Ahamkara. Ahamkara evaluates them either as concerning itself or not concerning itself. Thus coloured with the personal equation, they are next taken up by Buddhi, which makes certain their true nature and determines conduct accordingly.<ref name=":4" />
  
Sensible objects become known by perception; but it is by inference or reasoning that acquaintance with things transcending the senses is obtained. A truth which is neither to be directly perceived, nor to be inferred from reasoning, is deduced from Apta vacana and Sruti.
+
The mind ponders, the intellect determines, and egoism becomes conscious. The functions of mind, intellect and egoism can be instantaneous as well as gradual.
  
— Samkhya Karika Verse 4–6, [84]
+
Swami Sivananda says<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>''" Intellect, egoism, mind and the eye see a form at once, in one instant, and come immediately to a conclusion. ("This is a jar."). The same three, with tongue, at once relish taste; with the nose smell; and so on with the ear and the skin. The function is also occasionally gradual. A man going along a road sees an object at a distance. A doubt arises in his mind whether it is a post or a man. He then sees a bird sitting on it. Then the doubt is removed. In above example the intellect makes a determination that it is a post only. Then the ego says - I am certain that it is a post only. The intellect, the mind and egoism are the door-keepers. The five senses of perception or Jnana-Indriyas are the gates. The intellect is the instrument or organ which is the medium between the senses and the Self."'' </blockquote>It is established that Buddhi is supreme among the Indriyas. It is the principal means of accomplishing the apparently contradictory purpose of Purusha, namely Experience and Release.
The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarikia was the Gauḍapāda Bhāṣya attributed to Gauḍapāda, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Richard King, Professor of Religious Studies, thinks it is unlikely that Gauḍapāda could have authored both texts, given the differences between the two philosophies. Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidīpīka (c. 6th century CE) and Vācaspati’s Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (c. 10th century CE).[85]
+
== Compare and Contrast of Manifest, Unmanifest and Knower ==
 +
Having proved the effect to be "existent", a fact favorable to prove the existence of Prakrti ,  the author states the similarities and differences between the व्यक्तम् । Manifest (like Mahat, Ahamkara etc), अव्यक्तम् ।Unmanifest (Pradhana or Prakrti ) and पुरुषः । Purusha (Knower). A right comprehension of these aspects is conducive to attaining discriminative wisdom.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6">Jha, Ganganatha. (1896) ''[https://archive.org/stream/anenglishtransla00vaacuoft#page/28/mode/2up Tattva-Kaumudi (Sankhya) of Vachaspati Mishra (English Translation with the Sanskrit Text)]'' Bombay: Theosophical Publication</ref><blockquote>हेतुमदनित्यमव्यापि सक्रियमनेकमाश्रितं लिंङ्गम् । सावयवं परतन्त्रं व्यक्तं विपरीतमव्यक्तम् ॥ १० ॥(Samk. 10)<ref name=":5">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE Karikas] </ref></blockquote><blockquote>त्रिगुणमविवेकि विषय: सामान्यमचेतनं प्रसवधर्मि । व्यक्तं तथा प्रधानं तद्विपरीतस्तथा च पुमान् ॥ ११ ॥(Samk. 11)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
!Qualities
 +
!व्यक्तम् । Manifest (like Mahat, Ahamkara etc)
 +
!अव्यक्तम् ।Unmanifest (Pradhana or Prakrti )
 +
!पुरुषः । Purusha (Knower/Spectator)
 +
|-
 +
|हेतुमत् । Hetumat :
 +
|'''Possessing or dependent on a cause'''
 +
|'''Causeless'''
 +
|Causeless
 +
|-
 +
|अनित्यम् । Anityam :
 +
|'''Non-eternal, perishable'''
 +
|'''Eternal'''
 +
|Eternal
 +
|-
 +
|अव्यापि । Avyapi :
 +
|'''Not pervasive, finite'''
 +
|'''All pervading'''
 +
|All pervading
 +
|-
 +
|सक्रियम् । Sakriyam :
 +
|'''Active, mobile'''
 +
|'''Motionless, immutable'''
 +
|Motionless, immutable
 +
|-
 +
|अनेकम् । Anekam :
 +
|'''Multiform, manifold'''
 +
|'''Single'''
 +
|Singleness yet Multiplicity (as per Samkhya Karika 18)
 +
|-
 +
|आश्रितम् । Asritam :
 +
|'''Dependent on its cause'''
 +
|'''Self sustained'''
 +
|Self sustained
 +
|-
 +
|लिंङ्गम् । Lingam :
 +
|'''Mark (of inference), Characteristic, Mergent'''
 +
|'''Subject of the mark or non-mergent'''
 +
|Subject of the mark or non-mergent
 +
|-
 +
|सावयवं । Savayavam :
 +
|'''Made up of parts'''
 +
|'''A whole unit'''
 +
|A whole unit
 +
|-
 +
|परतन्त्रं । Paratantram :
 +
|'''Subordinate'''
 +
|'''Supreme'''
 +
|Supreme
 +
|-
 +
|त्रिगुणम् । Trigunam :
 +
|Consists of three Gunas in a disturbed state.
 +
|'''Consists of three Gunas in equilibrium'''
 +
|'''Not constituted by the three Gunas'''
 +
|-
 +
|अविवेकि । Aviveki :
 +
|Non-Discriminative
 +
|'''Non-Discriminative'''
 +
|'''Discriminating'''
 +
|-
 +
|विषय: । Vishaya :
 +
|Objective
 +
|'''Objective'''
 +
|'''Subjective'''
 +
|-
 +
|सामान्यम । Samanyam :
 +
|Common, apprehended simultaneously by several persons.
 +
|'''Common, apprehended simultaneously by several persons.'''
 +
|'''Not common'''
 +
|-
 +
|अचेतनम् । Achetanam :
 +
|Non-intelligent
 +
|'''Non-intelligent'''
 +
|'''Intelligent'''
 +
|-
 +
|प्रसवधर्मि । Prasavadharmi :
 +
|Productive
 +
|'''Productive'''
 +
|'''Non Prolific'''
 +
|}
 +
== सत्कार्यवादः ॥ Sat-Karyavada ==
 +
Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः । Theories of Origin of Universe) is one of the common topics discussed by the Darshanas.  Samkhya very clearly advocates Satkaryavada adopting the theory of evolution and involution. The cause and effect are the undeveloped and developed states of one and the same substance.<ref name=":4" />
 +
# There cannot be any production of something out of nothing. That which is not cannot be developed into that which is. There must be a material out of which a product is developed. There can be no production of what is absolutely non-existent; eg., a man's horn.
 +
# There must be some determinate material cause for every product. Cream, for instance can form on milk only and never on water. 
 +
# Everything cannot occur everywhere at all times, and anything possible must be produced from something competent to produce it. That which does not exist cannot be brought into existence by an agent. It would be useless to grind ground-nut, unless the oil existed in it. The manifestation of the oil is a proof that it was contained in the groundnut and consequently, a proof of the existence of the source from which it is derived. The effect truly exists beforehand in its cause. This is one of the central features of the Samkhya system of philosophy.
 +
# Cause is a substance in which the effect subsists in a latent form. Just as the whole tree world exists in a latent or dormant state in the seed, so also the whole world exists in a latent state in Prakrti , the Avyakta (unevolved), or Avyakrita (undifferentiated). The effect is of the same nature as the cause.<ref name=":0" /> This is called as the Law of the Identity of Cause and Effect. The effect, therefore, is never non-existent ; whether before its production, or after its destruction, it is always existent in the cause.
 +
# The relation of cause and effect is that of the producer and the produced. Cause is that which possesses the potentiality of becoming the effect, and this potentiality is nothing but the unrealised state of the effect.
 +
# The effect is seen to possess the nature of the cause, e.g., a coin still possesses the properties of the gold of which it is made.
 +
# The doctrine of Parinama or transformation (प्रकृतिपरिणामवादः), is that explains the origin of the effect. As all effects are contained in their causes in an unmanifested form, the 'production' or manifestation of an effect is merely a transformation of the cause.
 +
# Matter is indestructible. There is no such thing as total destruction. In destruction the effect is involved into its cause. That is all.
 +
==== Proofs of non-difference of Cause (Prakrti ) and Effect (Mahat and others) ====
 +
The proofs establishing the non-difference of the effect from the cause in essence are explained by the following <ref name=":1" />
  
The Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika.[86] Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Sāṁkhyasūtravṛtti, c. 15th century CE), Vijñānabhikṣu (Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya, c. 16th century CE), Mahādeva (vṛttisāra, c. 17th century CE) and Nāgeśa (Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti).[87] According to Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy, Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.[88]
+
a) the cloth (effect) is not different from the yarns (constituting it) - because it subsists in the yarns.  
  
Other sources[edit]
+
b) the cloth and yarns cannot be different things, because the latter is the constituent cause of the former.
The 13th century text Sarvadarsanasangraha contains 16 chapters, each devoted to a separate school of Indian philosophy. The 13th chapter in this book contains a description of the Samkhya philosophy.[89]
 
  
Lost textual references[edit]
+
c) the cloth and yarns cannot be different, because there is neither conjunction nor separation between them which is seen in the case where things are different from one another.  
In his Studies in Samkhya Philosophy, K.C. Bhattacharya writes:
 
  
Much of Samkhya literature appears to have been lost, and there seems to be no continuity of tradition from ancient times to the age of the commentators...The interpretation of all ancient systems requires a constructive effort; but, while in the case of some systems where we have a large volume of literature and a continuity of tradition, the construction is mainly of the nature of translation of ideas into modern concepts, here in Samkhya the construction at many places involves supplying of missing links from one's imagination. It is risky work, but unless one does it one cannot be said to understand Samkhya as a philosophy. It is a task that one is obliged to undertake. It is a fascinating task because Samkhya is a bold constructive philosophy.[90]
+
d) the cloth does not contain in itself any product which makes its weight different from that of the yarn constituting it.  
  
Philosophy[edit]
+
Accordingly, the Effect is ever existent is also fully established. Through this and a series of other logical deductions the Samkhyan theory of evolution - Satkaryavada is further supported. 
Epistemology[edit]
 
  
The Samkhya school considers perception, inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge.[5][6]
+
Thus,according to the Samkhya theory, the efficient cause or ''Nimmitta-Karaṇa'' of the world is ''Puruṣa'' – ‘the Supreme Consciousness’ and the material cause or ''Upadana-Karaṇa'' is ''Prakṛti'' – ‘the matter. Body or ''Sarira'', sense-organs or ''Indriyas'' and mind or ''Manas'' all are the evolutes of the ''Prakṛti'' or the main material principle. Ordinarily, we consider the mind to be conscious in nature. But on grounds of Samkhya, ''Manas'' or mind is also a matter, being the evolute of the main physical principle or ''Prakṛti''.<ref name=":3" />
Samkhya considered Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception), Anumāna (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or pramana.[5] Unlike few other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas as epistemically proper: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) .[6]
 
  
Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्षाय) means perception. It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense, the mind.[91][92] The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:[93] Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).[93] Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as pramana and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).[94] Further, some schools considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from Pratyakṣa-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).[95]
+
Purusha is the witness-subject. ''Puruṣa'' is neither body, nor sense-organ, nor is it mind. ''Puruṣa'' is the conscious spirit and a pure witness or ''Kevala-Sakṣin.'' He is also known as ''Svayam-Jyoti'' or self-conscious with happiness. There is one indwelling ''Puruṣa'' in every individual who appears as sentient.<ref name=":3" />
Anumāṇa (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.[96] Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana.[91] In all except one Hindu philosophies,[97] this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta (examples).[98] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti - the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[98][99] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).[100]
+
== The Universe ==
Śabda (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.[6][101] Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.[102] He must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through Sabda (words).[102] The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable sources.[6][102] The disagreement between the schools has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as Carvaka, state that this is never possible, and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.[103]
+
The world is evolved with its different elements when the equilibrium in Prakrti  is disturbed. The countless Purushas exert a mechanical force on Prakrti  which distracts the equipoise of Prakrti  and produces a movement. Then the evolution of the universe starts.<ref name=":0" />
Dualism[edit]
+
==== The process of Evolution ====
While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplified by Descartes, equate mind with the conscious self and theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body dualism; Samkhya provides an alternate viewpoint, intimately related to substance dualism, by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness and matter — where matter includes both body and mind.[104][105]
+
[[File:Samkhya.PNG|frame|720x720px|Courtesy : Dr. K. Varalakshmi, Deputy Director, Sanskrit Academy, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India]]
 +
Prakrti is the root of the universe. Prakrti  is both the material and the efficient cause of the universe. Prakrti evolves under the influence of Purusha. Mahat or Intellect, is the first product of the evolution of Prakrti . Ahankara arises after Buddhi. Mind is born of Ahankara. It carries out the orders of the will through the organs of action (Karmendriyas). It reflects and doubts (Sankalpa-Vikalpa). It synthesises the sense data into percepts. The mind takes part in both perception and action. There is no separate Prana Tattva in the Samkhya system. The Vedanta has a separate Prana Tattva. In the Samkhya system, mind, with the organs, produces the five vital airs. Prana is a modification of the senses. It does not subsist in their absence.   
  
The Samkhya system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities: puruṣa and prakṛti. While the prakṛti is a single entity, the Samkhya admits a plurality of the puruṣas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal prakṛti is alone the final source of the world of objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its bosom. The puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the prakṛti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya believes that the puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. It is a pluralistic spiritualism, atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism.[106]
+
The course of evolution is as follows.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />
 +
# One pure ''Prakrti'' is the balanced condition of ''Sattva'', ''Rajas'' and ''Tamas''. ''(Sattva- rajas-tamasāṁ-samyāvasṭhā-prakṛtiḥ).'' Before creation the change in Prakrti is homogeneous, in which the three gunas are held in a state of equilibrium.
 +
# From one pure ''Prakṛti'' evolves the cosmic Buddhi or Mahat ''(Prakṛter Mahān)'' by the disturbance in the equilibrium of the Gunas''.''
 +
# From ''Mahat'' evolves the cosmic Ahankara or the principle of egoism ''(Mahato’haṅkāro)''
 +
# From Ahankara emanate the ten senses and the mind on the subjective side, and the five subtle Tanmatras on the objective side.
 +
#* Pancha ''Karmendriyas (5 Indriyas of Action : Include powers located in Hands, Feet, Speech, Excretory Organs, Organs of Generation)''
 +
#* Pancha ''Jnanendriyas (5 Indriyas of Cognition : Include powers located in Eye, Ear, Nose, Tongue, Skin)''
 +
#* One ''Manas'' ''(Ahaṅkārāt-paňca-taṇmātrāṅi-ubhayaṁ-indriyaṁ)''
 +
#* Pancha Tanmatras ''(5 Subtle Elements : Include Smell, Taste, Form, Touch and Sound)''
 +
# From the five ''Taṇmatras'' evolve the five ''Mahabhutas (5 Gross Elements : Include Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether) (Taṇmātrebhyaḥ-sṭhūla-bhūtāni)''
 +
# ''Puruṣa (Puruṣa-iti-paňcavimśatir-gaṇaḥ)''
 +
Akasa (ether) has the property of sound which is the Vishaya or object for the ear. Vayu (air) has the property of touch which is the Vishaya for the skin. Tejas (fire) has the property of form or colour which is the Vishaya for the eye. Apas (water) has the property of taste which is the Vishaya for the tongue. Prithvi (earth) has the property of odour which is the Vishaya for the nose. Each of these elements, after the first, has also the property of the preceding besides its own.
 +
==== Involution of the Creation ====
 +
During dissolution of the world, the products return by a reverse movement into the preceding stages of development , and ultimately into Prakrti . Earth merges in its cause, water. Water merges in fire, fire merges in air, air in Akasa and Akasa in Ahankara, Ahankara in Mahat, and Mahat in Prakrti . This is the process of involution. There is no end to Samsara or the play of Prakrti . This cycle of evolution and involution has neither a beginning nor an end.
 +
== Samkhya is Nir-Ishvara ==
 +
Theism or Non-theistic approach of Samkhya has been highly debated in scholarly circles. The system of Samkhya has undergone many changes in the hands of various writers at different times and it is difficult to guess which of these can be genuinely attributed to Kapila.  
  
Puruṣa[edit]
+
The original Samkhya advocated the existence of One Supreme Power, Ishvara (thus monistic and theistic). But the classical Samkhya, perhaps under the influence of Jainism and Early Buddhism, many scholars believe, became atheistic. Samkhya may be classified as Astika, as it believes in the authority of Vedas, but it does not establish the non-existence of Ishvara. It only shows that Purusha and Prkrti are sufficient to explain this Universe and hence does away with the hypothesis of Ishvara. Some commentators have tried to repudiate the existence of Ishvara, while later commentators like Vijnanabhikshu have tried to revive the necessity for admitting Ishvara.
Puruṣa is the transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, "nonattributive consciousness". puruṣa is neither produced nor does it produce. It is held that unlike Advaita Vedanta and like Purva-Mīmāṃsā, Samkhya believes in plurality of the puruṣas.[107]
 
  
Prakṛti[edit]
+
Of the various versions of this philosophy, Shrimad Bhagavata's account of Kapila's Samkhya materially differs from the Samkhya of the Samkhya Karika, for, while the former is definitely theistic, the later is at least tacitly atheistic, for it is absolutely silent about Ishvara; apparently one theory that has no place for Ishvara in this system.<ref>Dasgupta, Surendranath. (5th Reprint : 2011) ''A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 4 : Indian Pluralism.''  New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>
  
Elements in Samkhya philosophy
+
The Samkhya system is called Nir-Isvara (without Ishvara). It is non-theistical but not atheistical, because it does not deny the existence of Supreme being. It is Nir-Ishvara, as it explains all and every fact of experience while not referring to and without invoking the intervention of a divine agency.<ref name=":4" />
Prakṛti is the first cause of the manifest material universe — of everything except the puruṣa. Prakṛti accounts for whatever is physical, both mind and matter-cum-energy or force. Since it is the first principle (tattva) of the universe, it is called the pradhāna, but, as it is the unconscious and unintelligent principle, it is also called the jaDa. It is composed of three essential characteristics (trigunas). These are:
 
  
Sattva – poise, fineness, lightness, illumination, and joy;
+
The creation produced by Prakrti has an existence of its own, independent of all connection with the particular Purusha to which it is united. So the Sankhyas say that there is no need for an intelligent Creator of the world, or even of any superintending power. According to Vedanta, Prakrti  is non-intelligent. An intelligent Creator alone can have a thought-out plan for the universe. Prakrti is only a Sahkari (helper).<ref name=":0" />
Rajas – dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain;
+
== Moksha for the Purusha or Liberation ==
Tamas – inertia, coarseness, heaviness, obstruction, and sloth.[106][108][109]
+
Purusha is eternally free. Union of Purusha with Prakrti  due to non-discrimination is bondage; the failure to discriminate between Purusha and Prakrti  is the cause of Samsara or bondage; and disunion of Purusha and Prakrti  due to discrimination is emancipation. Release is not merging in the Absolute but isolation from Prakrti .    
All physical events are considered to be manifestations of the evolution of prakṛti, or primal nature (from which all physical bodies are derived). Each sentient being or Jiva is a fusion of puruṣa and prakṛti, whose soul/puruṣa is limitless and unrestricted by its physical body. Samsāra or bondage arises when the puruṣa does not have the discriminate knowledge and so is misled as to its own identity, confusing itself with the Ego/ahamkāra, which is actually an attribute of prakṛti. The spirit is liberated when the discriminate knowledge of the difference between conscious puruṣa and unconscious prakṛti is realized by the puruṣa.
 
  
The unconscious primordial materiality, prakṛti, contains 23 components including intellect (buddhi,mahat), ego (ahamkara) and mind (manas); the intellect, mind and ego are all seen as forms of unconscious matter.[110] Thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive illumination from Purusha. In Samkhya, consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material configurations or 'shapes' assumed by the mind. So intellect, after receiving cognitive structures form the mind and illumination from pure consciousness, creates thought structures that appear to be conscious.[111] Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self, appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus, personalizes the objective activities of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them.[112] But consciousness is itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates.[111]
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The objective of the Samkhya System is to effect the liberation of the Purusha or Self. This is done by conveying the correct knowledge of the twenty-four constituent principles of creation and rightly discriminating the Self from them.<ref name=":0" />
  
By including mind in the realm of matter, Samkhya avoids one of the most serious pitfalls of Cartesian dualism, the violation of physical conservation laws. Because mind is an evolute of matter, mental events are granted causal efficacy and are therefore able to initiate bodily motions.[113]
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The universe is described by this school as one created by purusa-prakrti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. During the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called kaivalya (कैवल्य । liberation), by the Samkhya school.      
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==== How Liberation is effected ====
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When the separation of the soul from the body takes place by destruction of the effects of virtue, vice and the rest, then there is the final and absolute emancipation. When the fruits of acts cease, and body - both gross and subtle, dissolves. The soul attains the state called Kaivalya. It is freed from the three kinds of pain. The Linga-Deha or subtle body which migrates from one gross body to another in successive births, is composed of intellect, egoism, mind, the five organs of knowledge, the five organs of action and the five Tanmatras.  
  
Evolution[edit]
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The impressions of actions done in various births are embedded in the subtle body. The conjunction of the Linga-Deha with the gross  physical body constitutes birth and separation of the Linga-Deha from the gross physical body is death. This Linga-Deha is destroyed by the knowledge of the Purusha.  
The idea of evolution in Samkhya revolves around the interaction of prakṛti and Purusha. Prakṛti remains unmanifested as long as the three gunas are in equilibrium. This equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed when prakṛti comes into proximity with consciousness or Purusha. The disequilibrium of the gunas triggers an evolution that leads to the manifestation of the world from an unmanifested prakṛti.[114] The metaphor of movement of iron in the proximity of a magnet is used to describe this process.[115]
 
  
Some evolutes of prakṛti can cause further evolution and are labelled evolvents. For example, intellect while itself created out of prakṛti causes the evolution of ego-sense or ahamkara and is therefore an evolvent. While, other evolutes like the five elements do not cause further evolution.[116] It is important to note that an evolvent is defined as a principle which behaves as the material cause for the evolution of another principle. So, in definition, while the five elements are the material cause of all living beings, they cannot be called evolvents because living beings are not separate from the five elements in essence.[117]
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Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution of prakruti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha.
  
The intellect is the first evolute of prakṛti and is called mahat or the great one. It causes the evolution of ego-sense or self-consciousness. Evolution from self-consciousness is affected by the dominance of gunas. So dominance of sattva causes the evolution of the five organs of perception, five organs of action and the mind. Dominance of tamas triggers the evolution of five subtle elements– sound, touch, sight, taste, smell from self-consciousness. These five subtle elements are themselves evolvents and cause the creation of the five gross elements space, air, fire, water and earth. Rajas is cause of action in the evolutes.[118] Purusha is pure consciousness absolute, eternal and subject to no change. It is neither a product of evolution, nor the cause of any evolute.[117]
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Samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every soul. Samkhya regards Avidya (अविद्या । ignorance) as the root cause of suffering and Samsara (संसार । bondage). The way out of this suffering is through viveka (विवेक । knowledge). Moksha (मोक्ष । liberation), states Samkhya school, results from knowing the difference between prakruti and purusha.
  
Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution of prakṛti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha.[119] The 23 evolutes of prakṛti are categorized as follows:[120]
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Purusha, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of prakrti such as Buddhi and Ahamkara. This results in endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that Purusha is distinct from prakrti, is more than empirical ego, and that Purusha is deepest conscious self within, the Self gains Kaivalya (कैवल्य । isolation) and Moksha (मोक्ष । liberation).<ref name=":0" />
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==== Relation of Prakrti  and Purusha after Release ====
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<blockquote>वत्सविवृद्धिनिमित्तं क्षीरस्य यथा प्रवृत्तिरज्ञस्य । पुरुषविमोक्षनिमित्तं तथा प्रवृत्ति: प्रधानस्य ॥ ५७ ॥ (Samk. 57)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>As the unconscious milk functions for the sake of nourishment of the calf, so also the Prakrti  functions for the sake of release of Purusha.<ref name=":4" /> Just as people engage in acts to relieve anxiety or desires, so does Prakrti  energize for the purpose of the release of Purusha.<blockquote>तस्मान्न बध्यतेऽद्धा न मुच्यते नापि संसरति कञ्चित् । संसरति बध्यते मुच्यते च नानाश्रया प्रकृति: ॥ ६२ ॥ (Samk. 62)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>No Purusha is ever bound, nor is released, nor transmigrates. Prakrti , being the support of manifold creations, is bound, is released, and transmigrates.
  
Primordial matter prakṛti Root evolvent
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Bondage, migration and release are ascribed to the Purusha, in the same manner as defeat and victory are attributed to the king, though actually occurring to his soldiers, who undertake the action. In the same manner, experience and release, though really belonging to Nature are attributed to the Purusha, on the account of the non-discrimination of Prakrti  and Purusha. Once the Truth is revealed to Purusha, and experience and release have been accomplished there is nothing left to be done and hence Nature ceases from Prolific activity.<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>रङ्गस्थ इत्युपेक्षक एको दृष्टाहमित्युपरमत्यन्या । सति संयोगेऽपि तयो: प्रयोजनं नास्ति सर्गस्य ॥ ६६ ॥ (Samk. 66)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>"She has been see by me" says the one (Purusha) and so retires; "I have been seen " says the other (Prakrti ) and ceases to act. Hence though there exists a conjunction, it affords no motive towards further creation.  
Internal instruments Intellect (Buddhi or Mahat), Ego-sense (Ahamkāra), Mind (Manas) Evolvent
 
External instruments Five Sense organs (Jnānendriyas), Five Organs of action (Karmendriyas) Evolute
 
Subtle elements Sound (Shabda), Touch (Sparsha), Form (Rupa), Taste (Rasa), Smell (Gandha) Evolvent
 
Gross elements Ether (Ākāsh), Air (Vāyu), Fire (Agni), Water (Jala), Earth (Prithvi) Evolute
 
Liberation or mokṣa[edit]
 
The Supreme Good is mokṣa which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain... in the realisation of the Self as Self pure and simple.
 
  
—Samkhyakarika I.3[121]
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By the attainment of perfect wisdom, Virtue and the rest become devoid of casual energy; yet Purusha or Spirit remains awhile invested with the body as potter's wheel continues to revolve by the force of the impulse previously imparted to it. Release involves the ceasing of bondage of Prakrti  and does not imply the acquisition of a new state or condition, but consists merely in the removal of a veil or shadow, whereas the Body is dependent on the causes for its very existence. These causes are Dharma and A-Dharma or merit or demerit, collectively called as Karma.Karma is of three types
Samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every soul. The Samkhyakarika states,
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* Prarabdha or Operative Karma
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* Sanchita or Potential (stored) Karma
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* Agami or Future (to come in future) Karma
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On the attainment of discriminative knowledge, Sanchita Karma in seed-form is burst and rendered non-germinative, Agami Karma is also precluded. Thus only the Prarabhda Karma remains. Acquired by acts performed in previous life, operative in present life, it goes on sustaining till it is exhausted in its natural course and the Body which was supported by it, automatically drops down. It is in this state, where the discriminative knowledge is perfectly developed before the Prarabdha has worked itself out, the Incarnate Purusha in question is released, but remains awhile burdened with the Body. This is Jivan-mukti or release during life. 
  
As the unconscious milk functions for the sake of nourishment of the calf,
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When (in due course) separation from the Body takes place and there is cessation of the activity of the Pradhana from her, purpose having been fulfilled, the Purusha attains both absolute and final Kaivalya.<ref name=":6" />
so the Prakriti functions for the sake of moksha of the spirit.
 
  
— Samkhya karika, Verse 57[122][123]
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Other forms of Samkhya teach that Moksha is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of liberation, where Sattva guna predominates.
Samkhya regards ignorance (avidyā) as the root cause of suffering and bondage (Samsara). Samkhya states that the way out of this suffering is through knowledge (viveka). Mokṣa (liberation), states Samkhya school, results from knowing the difference between prakṛti (avyakta-vyakta) and puruṣa (jña).[5]
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== Shrimad Bhagavadgita and Samkhya ==
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Shrimad Bhagavadgita Chapter 2 (Slokas 12 to 30) explain the Samkhya philosophy and hence is called Samkhya Yoga. The second chapter in removing the worry in Arjuna has its objectives of eternalness of Atman and the detached performance of one’s assigned duties (karma). To realize this atman one requires wisdom or budhhi as the usual sensual organs like eyes, ears, mouth, etc cannot perceive it.  
  
Puruṣa, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of prakṛti such as intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). This results in endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that puruṣa is distinct from prakṛti, is more than empirical ego, and that puruṣa is deepest conscious self within, the Self gains isolation (kaivalya) and freedom (moksha).[124]
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Sri Krishna begins to enlighten Arjuna by presenting what is known as Samkhya- the analytical study of matter and Atman (आत्मन्) (2.11-30). To alleviate Arjuna's distress (at the thought of killing his friends and relatives), Krishna contrasts the eternality of the Atman (the real self) with the temporary nature of the material body (Atma's outer covering). The Atman, Krishna teaches, is eternal. It continues to exist after the death of the body: "For the Atman there is no such thing as birth or death. And having once existed, he never ceases to be. He is unborn, eternal, ever-existing, undying, and primeval. He does not die when the body is finished" (2.20). Krishna further explains that, at death, the Atman transmigrates to a new body: "As a person puts on new clothes, putting aside those garments that are old and worn, similarly, the Atman accepts new material bodies, giving up the old and useless ones" (2.22).  
  
Other forms of Samkhya teach that Mokṣa is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of liberation, where Sattva guna predominates.[14]
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What Samhya called as Purusha, The Gita explained it as Atman (आत्मन्), the eternal principle which neither dies nor takes birth.
  
Causality[edit]
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After the conclusion of the Mahabharata war, Vidura spoke (अनुशासनपर्व) to the afflicted Dhritharasthra, who was lamenting for the death of his sons. Vidura spoke strongly but compassionately to his brother about the nature of this world. Dhritharastha needed to develop detachment and not lament because lamentation would give him nothing. He had to be prepared for giving up his attachment, while Yudhisthira needed to act responsibly to lead the kingdom. As Dhritharasthra was hearing about detachment, Vyasadeva, Krishna and Bhishma were advising Yudhisthira to give up so-called detachment and indifference towards the kingdom because it was time for Yudhsthira to be involved to create a new dharmik order. Dharmik scriptures give prescription according to the need of the person.
 
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==References==
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<references />
The Samkhya system is based on Sat-kārya-vāda or the theory of causation. According to Satkāryavāda, the effect is pre-existent in the cause. There is only an apparent or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a material one, when it becomes effect. Since, effects cannot come from nothing, the original cause or ground of everything is seen as prakṛti.[125]
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[[Category:Darshanas]]
 
 
More specifically, Samkhya system follows the prakṛti-Parināma Vāda. Parināma denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is prakṛti or more precisely Moola-prakṛti (Primordial Matter). The Samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter. In evolution, prakṛti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects. Evolution is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back into prakṛti, which now remains as the undifferentiated, primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each other. But this theory is very different from the modern theories of science in the sense that prakṛti evolves for each Jeeva separately, giving individual bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of prakṛti merges into the Moola prakṛti. Another uniqueness of Sāmkhya is that not only physical entities but even mind, ego and intelligence are regarded as forms of Unconsciousness, quite distinct from pure consciousness.
 
 
 
Samkhya theorizes that prakṛti is the source of the perceived world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. The evolution itself is possible because prakṛti is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or gunas – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas, when the three together are one, "unmanifest" prakṛti which is unknowable. A guna is an entity that can change, either increase or decrease, therefore, pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any modification.
 
 
 
The evolution obeys causality relationships, with primal Nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation. The cause and effect theory of Samkhya is called Satkārya-vāda (theory of existent causes), and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness – all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another.
 
 
 
Samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the relationship between Purusha and prakṛti is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. The strands of Samkhya thought can be traced back to the Vedic speculation of creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and Yogavasishta.
 
 
 
Atheism[edit]
 
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Samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected beings but rejects the notion of God. Classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on metaphysical grounds. Samkhya theorists argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever changing world and that God was only a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances.[126] The Sutras of Samkhya have no explicit role for a separate God distinct from the puruṣa. Such a distinct God is inconceivable and self-contradictory and some commentaries speak plainly on this subject.
 
 
 
Arguments against Ishvara's existence[edit]
 
According to Sinha, the following arguments were given by the Samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eternal, self-caused, creator God:[127]
 
 
 
If the existence of karma is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral governor of the universe is unnecessary. For, if God enforces the consequences of actions then he can do so without karma. If however, he is assumed to be within the law of karma, then karma itself would be the giver of consequences and there would be no need of a God.
 
Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. Because the motives of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic. Now, God's motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suffering. If his motives are assumed to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have desire, as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of desire. However, assuming that God has desire would contradict God's eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover, desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute of prakṛti and cannot be thought to grow in God. The testimony of the Vedas, according to Samkhya, also confirms this notion.
 
Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires, this would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences. Such a worldly God would be no better than Samkhya's notion of higher self.
 
Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of God. He is not the object of perception, there exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference and the testimony of the Vedas speak of prakṛti as the origin of the world, not God.
 
Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not prove God.
 
 
 
Textual references[edit]
 
The Sankhya-tattva-kaumudi commenting on Karika 57 argues that a perfect God can have no need to create a world (for Himself) and if God's motive is kindness (for others), Samkhya questions whether it is reasonable to call into existence beings who while non-existent had no suffering.
 
 
 
The Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra in verse no. 1.92 directly states that existence of "Ishvara (God) is unproved". Hence there is no philosophical place for a creationist God in this system. It is also argued by commentators of this text that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist.[127]
 
 
 
These commentaries of Samkhya postulate that a benevolent deity ought to create only happy creatures, not a mixed world like the real world.[citation needed] A majority of modern academic scholars are of view that the concept of Ishvara was incorporated into the nirishvara (atheistic) Samkhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the Yoga, the Pasupata and the Bhagavata schools of philosophy. This theistic Samkhya philosophy is described in the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Bhagavad Gita[128]
 
 
 
Reception[edit]
 
The Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara considered Samkhya philosophy as propounded in Samkhyakarika to be inconsistent with the teachings in the Vedas, and considered the dualism in Samkhya to be non-Vedic.[129] In contrast, ancient Samkhya philosophers in India claimed Vedic authority for their views.[130]
 
 
 
Influence on other schools[edit]
 
On Indian philosophies[edit]
 
With the publication of previously unknown editions of Yuktidipika about mid 20th century, scholars[131] have suggested what they call as "a tempting hypothesis", but uncertain, that Samkhya tradition may be the oldest school of Indian philosophy.[131] The Vaisheshika atomism, Nyaya epistemology and Buddhist ontology may all have roots in the early Samkhya school of thought; but these schools likely developed in parallel with an evolving Samkhya tradition, as sibling intellectual movements.[131]
 
 
 
On Yoga[edit]
 
 
 
Yoga is closely related to Samkhya in its philosophical foundations.
 
The Yoga school derives its ontology and epistemology from Samkhya and adds to it the concept of Isvara.[132] However, scholarly opinion on the actual relationship between Yoga and Samkhya is divided. While, Jakob Wilhelm Hauer and Georg Feuerstein believe that Yoga was tradition common to many Indian schools and its association with Samkhya was artificially foisted upon by commentators such as Vyasa. Johannes Bronkhorst and Eric Frauwallner think that Yoga never had a philosophical system separate from Samkhya. Bronkhorst further adds that the first mention of Yoga as a separate school of thought is no earlier than Śankara's (c. 788–820 CE)[133] Brahmasūtrabhaśya.[134]
 
 
 
On Tantra[edit]
 
The dualistic metaphysics of various Tantric traditions illustrates the strong influence of Samkhya on Tantra. Shaiva Siddhanta was identical to Samkhya in its philosophical approach, barring the addition of a transcendent theistic reality.[135] Knut A. Jacobsen, Professor of Religious Studies, notes the influence of Samkhya on Srivaishnavism. According to him, this Tantric system borrows the abstract dualism of Samkhya and modifies it into a personified male–female dualism of Vishnu and Sri Lakshmi.[136] Dasgupta speculates that the Tantric image of a wild Kali standing on a slumbering Shiva was inspired from the Samkhyan conception of prakṛti as a dynamic agent and Purusha as a passive witness. However, Samkhya and Tantra differed in their view on liberation. While Tantra sought to unite the male and female ontological realities, Samkhya held a withdrawal of consciousness from matter as the ultimate goal.[137]
 
 
 
According to Bagchi, the Samkhya Karika (in karika 70) identifies Sāmkhya as a Tantra,[138] and its philosophy was one of the main influences both on the rise of the Tantras as a body of literature, as well as Tantra sadhana.[139]
 
 
 
See also[edit]
 
Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara
 
Darshanas
 
Dualism
 
Hinduism
 
Linga sarira
 
Ratha Kalpana
 
Khyativada
 
Notes[edit]
 
References[edit]
 
Jump up ^ Knut Jacobsen, Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 100-101
 
Jump up ^ "Samkhya", American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition (2011), Quote: "Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy based on a dualism involving the ultimate principles of soul and matter."
 
Jump up ^ "Samkhya", Webster’s College Dictionary (2010), Random House, ISBN 978-0375407413, Quote: "Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy stressing the reality and duality of spirit and matter."
 
^ Jump up to: a b Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate, ISBN 978-0754633013, pages 149-158
 
^ Jump up to: a b c d Larson 1998, p. 9
 
^ Jump up to: a b c d e
 
Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages 245-248;
 
John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
 
Jump up ^ John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
 
Jump up ^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages 43-46
 
Jump up ^ David Kalupahana (1995), Ethics in Early Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824817022, page 8, Quote: The rational argument is identified with the method of Samkhya, a rationalist school, upholding the view that "nothing comes out of nothing" or that "being cannot be non-being".
 
Jump up ^ Michaels 2004, p. 264
 
Jump up ^ Sen Gupta 1986, p. 6
 
Jump up ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 89
 
^ Jump up to: a b Samkhya - Hinduism Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)
 
^ Jump up to: a b Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 36-47
 
Jump up ^ Dasgupta 1922, p. 258.
 
Jump up ^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 39
 
^ Jump up to: a b Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 38-39
 
Jump up ^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 39, 41
 
Jump up ^ Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, ISBN 978-0486417929, pages 56-58
 
Jump up ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 154-206
 
Jump up ^ James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 9780823931798, page 265
 
Jump up ^ T Bernard (1999), Hindu Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1373-1, pages 74–76
 
Jump up ^ Alex Wayman (1962), Buddhist Dependent Origination and the Samkhya gunas, Ethnos, Volume 27, Issue 1-4, pages 14-22, doi:10.1080/00141844.1962.9980914
 
Jump up ^ saMkhya Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
 
Jump up ^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages 47-48
 
^ Jump up to: a b Apte 1957, p. 1664
 
Jump up ^ Bhattacharyya 1975, pp. 419–20
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, pp. 4, 38, 288
 
Jump up ^ Richard Garbe (1892). Aniruddha's Commentary and the original parts of Vedantin Mahadeva's commentary on the Sankhya Sutras Translated, with an introduction to the age and origin of the Sankhya system. pp. xx–xxi.
 
Jump up ^ R.N. Dandekar (1968). 'God in Indian Philosophy' in Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. p. 444.
 
Jump up ^ Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 31-32
 
Jump up ^ Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 29
 
Jump up ^ EH Johnston (1937), Early Samkhya: An Essay on its Historical Development according to the Texts, The Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, Volume XV, pages 80-81
 
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ruzsa 2006.
 
Jump up ^ Anthony Kennedy Warder (2009), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812444, pages 63-65
 
Jump up ^ Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages 37-38
 
^ Jump up to: a b c Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages 37-39
 
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 3-11
 
^ Jump up to: a b c GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 3-4
 
Jump up ^ Sharma 1997, p. 149
 
^ Jump up to: a b c Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 107-109
 
Jump up ^ Max Muller, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 85
 
Jump up ^ Radhakrishnan 1953, p. 163
 
Jump up ^ such as Rg Veda 1.164, 10.90 and 10.129; see GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, page 5
 
^ Jump up to: a b GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 4-5
 
^ Jump up to: a b c d Burley 2006, pp. 15–16.
 
^ Jump up to: a b Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 273, 288-289, 298-299
 
^ Jump up to: a b Burley 2006, pp. 15–18
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 96
 
Jump up ^ Mircea Eliade et al (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691142036, pages 392-393
 
Jump up ^ GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 6-7
 
Jump up ^ Fowler 2012, p. 34
 
Jump up ^ Fowler 2012, p. 37
 
^ Jump up to: a b c d King 1999, p. 63
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 75.
 
Jump up ^ Singh 2008, p. 185.
 
Jump up ^
 
Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10.129 Wikisource;
 
Translation 1: Max Muller (1859). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate, London. pp. 559–565.
 
Translation 2: Kenneth Kramer (1986). World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions. Paulist Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-8091-2781-4.
 
Translation 3: David Christian (2011). Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. University of California Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-520-95067-2.
 
^ Jump up to: a b c d GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 5-6, 109-110, 180
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 79.
 
^ Jump up to: a b c Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 349-359
 
Jump up ^ William Mahony (1997), The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791435809, pages 245-250
 
Jump up ^ Original Sanskrit: सप्त युञ्जन्ति रथमेकचक्रमेको अश्वो वहति सप्तनामा । त्रिनाभि चक्रमजरमनर्वं यत्रेमा विश्वा भुवनाधि तस्थुः ॥२॥ इमं रथमधि ये सप्त तस्थुः सप्तचक्रं सप्त वहन्त्यश्वाः । सप्त स्वसारो अभि सं नवन्ते यत्र गवां निहिता सप्त नाम ॥३॥ Wikisource
 
English Translation 1: Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 349-359
 
English Translation 2: Rigveda Ralph Griffith (Translator), Wikisource
 
Jump up ^ Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, pages 349-355
 
Jump up ^ Rigveda 1.164.6 Ralph Griffith (Translator), Wikisource
 
Jump up ^ GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 5, 295-296
 
Jump up ^ Ram Nidumolu (2013), Two Birds in a Tree, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, ISBN 978-1609945770, page 189
 
Jump up ^ Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, page 352
 
Jump up ^ Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (2005), Logos of Phenomenology and Phenomenology of The Logos, Springer, ISBN 978-1402037061, pages 186-193 with footnote 7
 
Jump up ^ Original Sanskrit: द्वा सुपर्णा सयुजा सखाया समानं वृक्षं परि षस्वजाते । तयोरन्यः पिप्पलं स्वाद्वत्त्यनश्नन्नन्यो अभि चाकशीति ॥२०॥ यत्रा सुपर्णा अमृतस्य भागमनिमेषं विदथाभिस्वरन्ति । इनो विश्वस्य भुवनस्य गोपाः स मा धीरः पाकमत्रा विवेश ॥२१॥ यस्मिन्वृक्षे मध्वदः सुपर्णा निविशन्ते सुवते चाधि विश्वे । तस्येदाहुः पिप्पलं स्वाद्वग्रे तन्नोन्नशद्यः पितरं न वेद ॥२२॥ Wikisource
 
English Translation 1: Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (2014), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199370184, page 356
 
English Translation 2: Rigveda 1.164 -22 Ralph Griffith (Translator), Wikisource
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, pp. 59, 79–81.
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 82.
 
Jump up ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 288-289
 
Jump up ^ Michele Marie Desmarais (2008), Changing minds: Mind, Consciousness and Identity in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120833364, page 25
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, pp. 82–84
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, pp. 88–90
 
^ Jump up to: a b c Larson 1998, pp. 91–93
 
Jump up ^ Fowler 2012, p. 39
 
Jump up ^ GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 2-8, 114-116
 
Jump up ^ GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 6-7, 74-88, 113-122, 315-318
 
Jump up ^ Bagchi 1989.
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 4
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, pp. 147–149
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, pp. 150–151
 
^ Jump up to: a b Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna Henry Colebrook (Translator), Oxford University Press, pages 18-27;
 
Sanskrit Original Samkhya karika with Gaudapada Bhasya, Ashubodh Vidyabushanam, Kozhikode, Kerala
 
Jump up ^ King 1999, p. 64
 
Jump up ^ Eliade, Trask & White 2009, p. 370
 
Jump up ^ Radhakrishnan 1923, pp. 253–56
 
Jump up ^ Dasgupta 1922, pp. 213–7
 
Jump up ^ Cowell and Gough, p. 22.
 
Jump up ^ K.C. Bhattacharya (1956). Studies in Samkhya Philosophy, Volume 1. p. 127.
 
^ Jump up to: a b MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16
 
Jump up ^ B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198239765
 
^ Jump up to: a b Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0309-4, pages 160-168
 
Jump up ^ Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0309-4, pages 168-169
 
Jump up ^ Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0309-4, pages 170-172
 
Jump up ^ W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reflection, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-0362-9, page 26-27
 
Jump up ^ Carvaka school is the exception
 
^ Jump up to: a b James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 46-47
 
Jump up ^ Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0779-0
 
Jump up ^ Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom - Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, page 61
 
Jump up ^ DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7, page 172
 
^ Jump up to: a b c M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, page 43
 
Jump up ^ P. Billimoria (1988), Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge, Studies of Classical India Volume 10, Springer, ISBN 978-94-010-7810-8, pages 1-30
 
Jump up ^ Haney 2002, p. 17
 
Jump up ^ Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p. 339
 
^ Jump up to: a b Sharma 1997, pp. 149–68
 
Jump up ^ Sharma 1997, pp. 155–7
 
Jump up ^ Hiriyanna 1993, pp. 270–2
 
Jump up ^ Chattopadhyaya 1986, pp. 109–110
 
Jump up ^ Haney 2002, p. 42
 
^ Jump up to: a b Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p. 342
 
Jump up ^ Leaman 2000, p. 68
 
Jump up ^ Leaman 2000, p. 248
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 11
 
Jump up ^ Cowell & Gough 1882, p. 229
 
Jump up ^ Cowell & Gough 1882, p. 221
 
^ Jump up to: a b Cowell & Gough 1882, pp. 223
 
Jump up ^ Cowell & Gough 1882, pp. 222
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 12
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 8
 
Jump up ^ Sinha 2012, p. App. VI,1
 
Jump up ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 273
 
Jump up ^ Original Sanskrit: Samkhya karika Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives;
 
Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 169
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 13
 
Jump up ^ Larson 1998, p. 10
 
Jump up ^ Rajadhyaksha 1959, p. 95
 
^ Jump up to: a b Sinha 2012, pp. xiii-iv
 
Jump up ^ Karmarkar 1962, pp. 90–1
 
Jump up ^ Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 67-70
 
Jump up ^ Gerald Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 213
 
^ Jump up to: a b c GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411, pages 10-11
 
Jump up ^ Larson 2008, p. 33
 
Jump up ^ Isayeva 1993, p. 84
 
Jump up ^ Larson 2008, pp. 30–32
 
Jump up ^ Flood 2006, p. 69
 
Jump up ^ Jacobsen 2008, pp. 129–130
 
Jump up ^ Kripal 1998, pp. 148–149
 
Jump up ^ Bagchi 1989, p. 6
 
Jump up ^ Bagchi 1989, p. 10
 
Sources[edit]
 
Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1957). The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary. Poona: Prasad Prakashan.
 
Bagchi, P.C. (1989), Evolution of the Tantras, Studies on the Tantras, Kolkata: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, ISBN 81-85843-36-8
 
Bhattacharyya, Haridas (ed) (1975). The cultural heritage of India: Vol III: The philosophies. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
 
Burley, Mikel (2006), Classical Samkhya And Yoga: The Metaphysics Of Experience, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-39448-2
 
Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (1986), Indian Philosophy: A popular Introduction, New Delhi: People's Publishing House, ISBN 81-7007-023-6
 
Cowell, E. B.; Gough, A. E. (1882), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy: Trubner's Oriental Series, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-24517-3
 
Dasgupta, Surendranath (1922), A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8
 
Eliade, Mircea; Trask, Willard Ropes; White, David Gordon (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6
 
Flood, Gavin (2006), The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion, I.B.Tauris, ISBN 978-1-84511-011-6
 
Fowler, Jeaneane D (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Eastbourne: Sussex Academy Press, ISBN 978-1-84519-520-5
 
Haney, William S. (2002), Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained, New Jersey: Bucknell University Press, ISBN 1611481724
 
Hiriyanna, M. (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 81-208-1099-6
 
Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu (1997), Proceedings. International conference on cognitive systems, New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd, ISBN 81-7023-746-7
 
Isayeva, N. V. (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7
 
Jacobsen, Knut A. (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9
 
Karmarkar, A.P. (1962), Religion and Philosophy of Epics in S. Radhakrishnan ed. The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.II, Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, ISBN 81-85843-03-1
 
King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3
 
Kripal, Jeffrey J. (1998), Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-45377-4
 
Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, London: Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8
 
Larson, Gerald James (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3349-4
 
Leaman, Oliver (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, New Delhi: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-17357-4
 
Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08953-1
 
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, C. A. (1957), A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01958-4
 
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1953), The principal Upaniṣads, Amhert, New York: Prometheus Books, ISBN 978-1-57392-548-8
 
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923), Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-563820-4
 
Rajadhyaksha, N. D. (1959), The six systems of Indian philosophy, Bombay (Mumbai), OCLC 11323515
 
Ruzsa, Ferenc (2006), Sāṅkhya (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
 
Sen Gupta, Anima (1986), The Evolution of the Samkhya School of Thought, New Delhi: South Asia Books, ISBN 81-215-0019-2
 
Sharma, C. (1997), A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN 81-208-0365-5
 
Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education India, ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0
 
Sinha, Nandlal (2012), The Samkhya Philosophy, New Delhi: Hard Press, ISBN 1407698915
 
Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India (reprint 1989), Princeton University Press
 
Cowell, E.B.; Gough, A.E. (1882). Sarva-Darsana Sangraha of Madhava Acharya: Review of Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy. New Delhi: Indian Books Centre/Sri Satguru Publications. ISBN 81-703-0875-5.
 
Further reading[edit]
 
Mikel Burley (2007). Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-15978-9.
 
Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). "Chapter Six: Samkhya". Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6.
 
Hulin, Michel (1978). Sāṃkhya Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447018999.
 
Gerald James Larson (2001). Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3.
 
Müeller, Max (1919). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
 
External links[edit]
 
"Samkhya". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
 
Bibliography of scholarly works: see [S] for Samkhya by Karl Potter, University of Washington
 
Samkhya and Yoga: An Introduction, Russell Kirkland, University of Georgia
 
Classical Sāmkhya and the Phenomenological Ontology of Jean-Paul Sartre, Gerald J. Larson, Philosophy East and West
 
PDF file of Ishwarkrishna's Sankhyakarika, in English
 
Lectures on Samkhya, The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, Oxford University
 

Latest revision as of 17:10, 30 May 2021

Samkhya sashtra or Samkhya (Samskrit: साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्) is one of the Shad Darshanas. Kapila Muni is the founder of Samkhya Darsana. The word Samkhya means number. The Samkhya system gives an enumeration of the twenty five principles of universe[1].

Sankhya Darshanam
Biases in Modern Indian Philosophical studies

परिचयः || Introduction

In the context of ancient Indian philosophies, Samkhya philosophy is based on systematic enumeration and rational examination. Samkhya (साङ्ख्य) means "number" used in the sense of thinking and counting. Thinking is with reference to basic principles or Knowledge of Self. Counting refers to the twenty-four principles and others.[2]

Thus, the school specifies the number and nature of the ultimate constituents of the Universe and thereby imparts knowledge of reality. The term also means "perfect knowledge. Hence it is a system of perfect knowledge.[3] The main tenets in this school of philosophy are as follows

  • Samkhya is strongly dualist accepting the roles of Prakrti (प्रकृतिः) and Purusha (पुरुषः) in the Creation of this Universe.
  • Samkhya siddhanta accepts that enumeration of truth can be done by using three of six accepted pramanas (प्रमाणाः proofs).
  • The Trigunas exist in all life forms in different proportions.
  • It 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles; and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the purusha or soul.
  • The evolutionary process involves Pradhana (Prakruti), Purusha, Mahat (Buddhi), Ahankaraara, Pancha Jnanendriyas, Pancha Karmendriyas, Panchatanmatras, Panchabhutas and Manas
  • While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, a key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that Yoga school accepts a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal deity".
  • The existence of Supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered very relevant by the Samkhya philosophers.
  • Samkhya school considers moksha (मोक्ष) as a natural quest of every soul.

Founder - Kapila Maharshi

Maharshi Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school.

Bhagavata purana refers to Kapila as an incarnation of Bhagavan, as do the Pancharatra texts who allude to him as the incarnation of Bhagavan Srihari.

Mahabharata describes him as Bhagavan Hari and Vishnu (3.47.18), with Vasudeva (3.107.31) and with Krishna and also describes him as a great rishi who reduced the sons of Sagara into ashes by his wrath.

Bhagavadgita mentions Bhagavan Srikrishna saying that of the seers he is Kapila rishi (10.26).

Mahabharata also identifies Kapila with the Fourth fire. (Mahabharata 3.220.21)

Shvetashvara Upanishad (Shve. Upan. 6.13)

Though the use of 'Kapila' and 'Samkhya' is first found in Shvetashvara Upanishad तत्कारणं साङ्ख्ययोगाधिगम्यं ज्ञात्वा देवं मुच्यते सर्वपाशैः ॥ १३ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 6.13) yet Samkhya reflections appear in Rigveda and other Upanishads proving the antiquity of this Shastra.[2]

Names of twenty-six Samkhya teachers are met with in the Smritis, Mahabharata, the Karikas etc. They are as follows: Kapila, Asuri, Panchashika, Vindhyavasa or Vindhyavasaka, Varshanjna, Jaigishavya, Vodhu, Asitadevala or Devala, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara, Bhrgu, Sukra, Kashyapa, Parasara, Garga, Gautama, Narada, Arshtisena, Agastya, Pulastya, Harita, Uluka Valmiki, Suka.[2]

Vedic and Upanishad Influences

The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, the karikas, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. The earliest mention of dualism is in the Rigveda, नासदीय सूक्त || Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe): Rigveda 10.129 hymn is one of the roots of the Samkhya.

The other Indian texts that mention Kapila and Samkhya include[2]

  • Rigveda 1.164.20 - 1.164.22 emphasizes the duality between सत् || sat (existence) and असत् || asat (non-existence) in the Nasadiya Sukta similar to the व्यक्त-अव्यक्त || vyakta–avyakta (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymns about Purusha in Rigveda may also have influenced Samkhya. The Samkhya notion of buddhi or महत् || mahat is similar to the notion of Hiranyagarbha (हिरण्यगर्भ), which appears in both the Rigveda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.
  • Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Katha, Mundaka, Maitrayani, Prasha Upanishads and Manusmriti in various places mention the concepts of Samkhya. Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya, can be traced to the verses in sixth chapter of Chandogya Upanishad which emphasize the primacy of सत् || sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chandogya and Shvetashvatara Upanishads. The concept of ahamkara in Samkhya can be traced back to the notion of ahamkara in chapters 1.2 and 1.4 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and chapter 7.25 of the Chandogya Upanishad.
  • Mahabharata and the Puranas, fully reflect Samkhya philosophy. The mention of five gross elements, the twenty four categories in their manifested or unmanifested character and the three gunas is made in Vanaparva of Mahabharata (211. 1 - 8). The distinction between Prakrti and Purusha has been extensively expounded in Santi Parva (285. 33-40) of Mahabharata.
  • Bhagavadgita discusses the Samkhya concepts very lucidly which is named Samkhya Yoga (Chap. 2).

साङ्ख्यसिद्धान्तम् ॥ Samkhya Siddhantam - Core Concepts

The Samkhya system discusses an original primordial Tattva or principle called Prakrti, that which evolves or produces or brings forth (Prakaroti) everything else.

Objective of Samkhya Philosophy

The enquiry into this system of philosophy is to find out the means for eradicating the three sorts of pain, namely

  1. आद्ध्यात्मिक || Internal or Adhyatmika (This can be of further two types - Physical and Mental.
    1. Physical Pains: These are caused due to imbalance of Vaata, Pitta and Kapha. The Tri-Doshas as they are called, are not in harmony causing different illnesses.
    2. Mental Pains: These are caused due to various dispositions such as काम, क्रोध, मद, मोह, लोभ, भय, मत्सर, राग, द्वेष. Various mental diseases, worries, tensions, depression are examples of this pain.
  2. आदिभौतिक || External or Adhibhautika (These are pains caused due to this physical world. Problems caused due to thorns, animals, scorpion, thunder, cold, heat, rain etc.).
  3. आदिदैविक || Celestial or Adhidaivika (These include व्याधि due to Yakshas, Rakshasas, Sudden problems, still born child, unseen problems in important events, विघ्न, due to दैव etc.)

Pain is an embarrassment. It stands in the way of doing Yoga Sadhna and attaining Moksha or release. According to Samkhya one who has the knowledge of the twenty five principles, annihilates this pain. The ultimate cessation of the three kinds of pain is the final goal of life.[1]

Pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow really belong to Buddhi or the intellect and the mind. The Purusha or Self is by its nature free from them all. But due to Ajnana (ignorance) it fails to distinguish itself from the mind and intellect, and identifies itself with the body and senses. It is this want of discrimination or feeling of identity (aviveka) between the self and the mind-body that is the cause of all pain and troubles. Freedom from this suffering comes from knowledge of the distinction between the two (vivekajnana) and ends the suffering.[3]

द्वैत || Dvaita Concept of Purusha and Prakrti

Samkhya denies that anything can be produced out of nothing. It assumes the reality of Purusha and Prakrti , the knowing Self and the objects known. Prakrti and Purusha are Anadi (beginningless) and Ananta (infinite). Non-discrimination between the two is the cause for birth and death. Discrimination between Prakrti and Purusha gives Mukti (salvation). Both Purusha and Prakrti are Sat (real). Purusha is Asanga (unattached). He is consciousness, all-pervading and eternal. Prakrti is doer and enjoyer. Souls are countless.[1]

Samkhya is strongly Dvaita (द्वैत । dualist) based on the Upanishadic teaching of the Brahman there are two types of descriptions about Brahman; Purusha (consciousness) and Prakrti (प्रकृति । matter). On one hand, Brahman is described as Kutasta (unchangeable or immutable) as for example, in Gita, Brahman is described as the eternal principle which the fire cannot burn, wind cannot dry etc. On the other hand, Brahman is presented as changing principle and manifests into many forms to become the world. Here the example of spider is presented; the spider spins its web from its own resources, so also Brahman is the only reality and from him all things come forth. In order to solve this contradiction, Samkhya proposes two Ultimate Principles, Purusha (unchanging Self) and Prakrti (changing matter). Therefore, Samkhya is dualistic realism as it considers that both matter and spirit are equally real. It is also pluralistic because of its teaching that Purusha is not one but many.[2]

तत्वानि || Fourfold Classification of the Twenty Five Tattvas

The Samkhya gives a description of categories based on their respective productive efficiency viz:[1][2]

  1. प्रकृति || Prakrti (Productive)
  2. प्रकृति-विकृति || Prakrti - Vikriti (Productive and Produced). These are seven in number.
  3. विकृति || Vikriti (Productions). These are sixteen in number.
  4. अनुभयरूपम् || Anubhayarupa (Neither Productive nor Produced). This is Purusha.

This fourfold classification includes all the twenty-five principles or Tattvas.

  • Prakrti or Nature or Pradhana (chief) is purely productive. It is the root of all. It is not a product. It is a creative force, evolver, and producer.
  • The Productive and Produced include the Seven principles —
    • बुद्धि (Buddhi, intellect), अहंकार (Ahankara, egoism) and the five तन्मात्र Tanmatras (subtle essences - the essence of sight, smell, taste, touch and sound).
    • Buddhi is productive, as Ahankara is evolved out of it. It is produced also, as it itself is evolved out of Prakrti . Egoism is a production, as it is derived from intellect. It is productive, as it gives origin to the five Tanmatras. The subtle essences (Tanmatras) are derived from egoism. Hence they are productions. They give origin to the five elements. Hence they are productive.
  • The Productions include the sixteen principles, the ten organs, the mind and the five elements. They are unproductive, because none of them can give birth to a substance essentially different from itself.
  • The Purusha or Spirit is neither a production, nor is it productive. It is without attributes.

प्रमाणाः || Pramanas

In order to prove the tattvas, different kinds of proof (means of right cognition) are to be described. Samkhya philosophy is based on systematic enumeration and uses three of the six pramanas (प्रमाणाः । pramanas or proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge.[1][4] These include

दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनं च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धि: प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)[5]

dr̥ṣṭamanumānamāptavacanaṁ ca sarvapramāṇasiddhatvāt । trividhaṁ pramāṇamiṣṭaṁ prameyasiddhi: pramāṇāddhi ॥ 4 ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)

  • प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणाः || pratyaksha-pramana (perception)
  • अनुमानप्रमाणाः || anumana-pramana (inference)
  • आप्तवचनम् || aptavacana (word/testimony of reliable sources) Vachana being शब्दप्रमाणाः । sabda-pramana.

The Word Apta means fit or right. It is applied to the Vedas or inspired teachers. Nyaya Darsana accepts four kinds of proofs: प्रत्यक्ष, अनुमान , उपमान, शब्द. The Mimamsakas recognise six kinds of proofs.

Unlike few other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas as epistemically proper: उपमान || Upamana (comparison and analogy), अर्थापत्ति || Arthaapatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or अनुपलब्दि || Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).

प्रकृतिः || Prakrti the Cause

Prakrti means that which is primary, that which precedes what is made. It comes from 'Pra' (before) and `Kri' (to make). It resembles Vedantic concept of Maya. Thus, the sense of unity is seen in the single source of origin of the world or material manifestation. It is called the Root and is described as the Pradhana, that in which all things are contained, and as Prakrti, the mother of all things.[6]

Prakrti is eternal, all pervading, immovable. It is one. It has no cause, but is the cause of all effects. Prakrti is independent and uncaused, while the products are caused and dependent. Prakrti depends only on the activity of its own constituent Gunas (metaphysical properties).[1]

One pure Prakrti is made of the three Gunas namely Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. The three Gunas with different permutations and combinations give rise to the varied substances. Accordingly, evolution cannot be consumed from Prakṛti alone or from Puruṣa alone.[7]

Proof for Existence of Prakrti

Samkhya gives five proofs for the existence of Prakrti.[3]

a) Bhedanam parimanat: (effects are limited and many) All particular objects of the world, from Buddhi to Panchabhutas, are limited and dependent on one another. The finite and limited principle cannot be the cause of the Universe. So there is an unlimited and independent cause for their existence. It is the Prakrti which is infinite, unlimited, independent and all-pervading source of the universe.

b) Samanvayat: (harmony) All worldly things possess certain common characteristics due to which pleasure, pain and indifference are produced. Therefore,they must have a common cause which is composed of these three gunas and that is Prakrti .

c) Karyatah pravrttescha: (effect is produced due to action) All effects proceed from the activity of some cause which contains their potentiality within it. The world of objects which are effects must be implicitly contained in some world-cause. And that is Prakrti .

d) Karanakaryavibhagat: (cause and effects are separate/different) The effect is the explicit and cause is the implicit state of the same process. The effect, therefore points to a world-cause where they are potentially contained. And that is Prakrti .

e) Avibhagat vaishvarupyasya: (unity) In the universe everything has a purpose and thus the whole universe is a unified whole. Therefore the unity of the universe points to a single cause and that cause is called Prakrti . One should not imagine a cause of this ultimate cause, for that will land us in the fallacy of infinite regress.

Transformation of Prakrti

This creation, from the intellect down to the elements is brought about by the transformation of Prakrti . Having observed the effects, the cause (Prakrti ) is inferred. Prakrti is imperceptible from its subtlety. It must therefore be inferred from its effects.

Egoism is a form of intellect. it is the matter from which the senses and the rudimental elements are formed. The gross elements are forms of the rudimental elements. Intellect, egoism and the five subtle rudiments or Tanmatras are the effects of Prakrti . Prakrti is the basis of all objective existence. Prakrti creates only when it comes into union with Purusha.[1]

गुणः || Gunas

Samkhya is known for its theory of gunas (गुणः। quality, innate tendencies). Guna, it states, are of three types: Satva, Rajas and Tamas.

  • सत्त्वगुणः || Sattva being harmony, illuminating, positive, pure.
  • रजोगुणः || Rajas is one of activity, motion, chaotic, passion, potentially good or bad action.
  • तमोगुणः || Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative

Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different proportions.

Prakrti is composed of three Gunas of forces, called Sattva (purity, light, harmony), Rajas (passion, activity, motion) and Tamas (inertia, darkness, inertness, inactivity). It is to be noted that these Gunas are not the Nyaya-Vaiseshika Gunas. They are the actual substances or ingredients, of which Prakrti is constituted. They make up the whole world evolved out of Prakrti. They are not conjoined in equal quantities, but in varying proportions, one or the other being in excess. Just as Sat-Chit-Ananda is the Vedantic triad, so also the Gunas are the Samkhyan triad.[1] However the Guṇa is not the quality of Prakrti; on the contrary they are constituents of one pure Prakṛti.

Interaction Between the Gunas

Interaction between the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas leads to Evolution. The three Gunas are never separate. They support one another. They intermingle with one another. They form the very substance of Prakrti . All objects are composed of the three Gunas. The Gunas act on one another. Then there is evolution or manifestation. The Gunas are the objects.[1]

Characteristics of the Three Gunas

The three Guṇas are so subtle that they are imperceptible but can be inferred through the experiences that they give; which is pleasure, pain, dullness and indifference. They serve the purpose of illumination, activity and restraint, and perform the function of mutual dominance, dependence, transformation and are in constant association with one another. The role of Guna is manifestation of the Prakrti.[6][7]

  • Sattva always remains in equilibrium. When Sattva prevails, there is peace or tranquillity. The word ‘Sat’ ordinarily means existence or Reality. It also means goodness, purity and bliss. It is characterized by Sukha (peace) and Prakāśa (illumination). Sattva Guṇa of Prakṛti gives rise to calmness of the nature and mind.[7]
  • Rajas is activity which is expressed as Raga-Dvesha, likes or dislikes, love or hatred attraction or repulsion. Thus, Rajas Guṅa represents life of enjoyment and whatever is restless. In turn the mind gets stressful and leads to fatigue causing pain and disturbance. Rajo Guṇa is the basis of everything which evolves and causes pain along with happiness.
  • Tamas is that binding force with a tendency to lethargy, sloth and foolish actions. It causes delusion or non-discrimination. Therefore Tamo Guṇa represents whatever is indifferent and passive. It helps to regain vigour and vitality in the form of sleep. It is the basis of everything, which causes dullness, darkness and ignorance.[7]

When Sattva is predominant, it overpowers Rajas and Tamas. When Rajas is dominant, it overpowers Sattva and Tamas. When Tamas is predominant, it overpowers Rajas and Sattva.[1]

Jiva is Affected by the Three Gunas

There are three Gunas in every man. When Sattva prevails, he is calm and tranquil. He reflects and meditates. At other times, Rajas prevails in him and he does various sorts of worldly activities. He is passionate and active. Sometimes, Tamas prevails. He becomes lazy, dull, inactive and careless.

A Sattvic man is virtuous. Sattva makes a man divine and noble, Rajas makes him thoroughly human and selfish, and Tamas makes him bestial and ignorant.[1]

पुरुषः ॥ The Purusha

The Purusha or the Self is beyond Prakrti. The qualities of Purusha are as follows[1][6]

तस्माच्च विपर्यासात् सिद्धं साक्षित्वमस्य पुरुषस्य । कैवल्यं माध्यस्थ्यं द्रष्टृत्वमकर्तृभावश्च ॥ १९ ॥ (Samk. 19)[5]

tasmācca viparyāsāt siddhaṁ sākṣitvamasya puruṣasya । kaivalyaṁ mādhyasthyaṁ draṣṭr̥tvamakartr̥bhāvaśca ॥ 19 ॥ (Samk. 19)

  • The purusha is not the doer. It is the witness (साक्षित्वम्).
  • It is solitary (कैवल्यं) and indifferent (माध्यस्थ्यं).
  • It is a spectator (द्रष्टृत्वम्) and not an agent of action (अकर्तृभावः) is discriminative and non-prolific.
  • It is Intelligent and subjective.
  • It is without attributes and without qualities.
  • It is subtle and omnipresent.
  • It is beyond mind, intellect and the senses.
  • It is beyond time, space and causality.
  • It is the eternal seer.
  • It is perfect and immutable.
  • It is pure consciousness (Chidrupa).

It is eternally separate from the Prakrti. Purusha is without beginning or end. The Purusha is like a crystal without any colour. It appears to be coloured by the different colours which are placed before it. It is not material. It is not a result of combination. Hence it is immortal.

बहुपुरुषवादः ॥ Plurality of Purusha

The Purushas or souls are infinite in number, according to the Samkhya. There are many Purushas. If the Purushas were one, all would become free if anyone attained Moksha.

The different souls are fundamentally identical in nature. There is no movement for the Purusha. It does not go anywhere when it attains freedom or release. Souls exist eternally separate from each other and from Prakrti . Each soul retains its individuality. It remains unchanged through all transmigrations. Each soul is a witness of the act of a separate creation, without taking part in the act.[1]

Proof for Existence of the Purusha

That the Purusha or the pure consciousness exists is proved as follows[3][8]

संघातपरार्थत्वात् त्रिगुणादिविपर्यादधिष्ठानात् । पुरुषोऽस्ति भोक्तृभावात् कैवल्यार्थं प्रवृत्तेश्च ॥ १७ ॥ (Samk. Kari. 17)[5]

saṁghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyādadhiṣṭhānāt । puruṣo'sti bhoktr̥bhāvāt kaivalyārthaṁ pravr̥tteśca ॥ 17 ॥ (Samk. Kari. 17)

संघातपरार्थत्वात्Sanghataparthatvat : Intelligence cannot belong to the intellect, because the intellect is material and is the effect of Prakrti which is non-intelligent. If intelligence is absent in a cause, it cannot manifest itself in the effect. Therefore, there must be a distinct principle of intelligence and this distinct principle is Purusha or the Self. 

भोक्तृभावात् ॥ Bhoktrbhavat : There must be a Supervisor over and above Pradhana or Prakrti . The Supervisor is Purusha or the Self. Prakrti and its products are objects of enjoyment. There must exist an enjoyer who must be an intelligent principle. This intelligent enjoyer is Purusha or the Self. Just as chair and bench are for the use of another so also this body, senses and mind are for the use of the Self which is immaterial, as it is destitute of attributes and as it is beyond the Gunas.

त्रिगुणादिविपर्याद ॥ Trigunadiviparyayat : The Purusha is the witness of the Gunas. The Gunas are the objects. Purusha is the witness-subject. Hence, it is not affected by pleasure, pain and delusion which are attributes of the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, respectively. If pain is natural to the Purusha and if the Purusha is not naturally free from the action of the Gunas, no salvation from rebirth is possible.[1]

कैवल्यार्थं प्रवृत्तेश्च ॥ Kaivalyartham pravrtteh : The Purusha must be there because there is a tendency towards Isolation. Prakrti operates towards the emancipation or isolation of itself from the Self which is the final goal of Purusha. 

The Jiva

The Jiva is the soul in union with the senses. It is limited by the body. It is endowed with egoism. The reflection of Purusha in the Buddhi or intellect appears as the ego or the empirical soul. It is associated with ignorance and Karma. It is subject to pleasure and pain action and its fruits, and rotates in the cycle of births and deaths.  

The Jiva is different from the Purusha, who is perfect. The Jiva must strive to attain the status of the Purusha. Every Jiva has in it the higher Purusha hidden within. It must become conscious of the real nature of the higher Purusha. Freedom or perfection is a return into one's true Self. It is the removal of an illusion which conceals one's true nature.[1]

Jiva (जीव । a living being) is that state in which Purusha is bonded to Prakrti . This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi (बुद्धि । intellect) and Ahankara (अहङ्कार । ego consciousness). 

Purusha in Different Philosophies

Although there is a general agreement with regard to the existence of the Self, there is a wide divergence of opinion about its nature.[3]

- Charvakas or materialists identify Self with the gross body, some with senses, mind, and life.

- Buddhists or emipiricists regard the Self as identical with the stream of consciousness.

- Nyaya-Vaisheshikas and the Prabhakara Mimamsakas maintain that Self is an unconscious substance which may acquire the attribute of consciousness under certain conditions.

- The Kumarila Bhatta Mimamsakas think that the Self is a conscious entity which is partially hidden by ignorance, as appears from the imperfect and partial knowledge that men have of their selves.

- The Advaita Vedanta holds that the Self is pure eternal consciousness which is also blissful existence (sacchidananda svarupa).

- But according to Samkhya the Self is different from the body and senses, the manas, buddhi. It is not of the world of objects. It is the subject of knowledge and without attributes.Consciousness is its very essence and not a mere quality of it.

The Process of Knowledge

The process through which Purusha attains the discriminatory knowledge involves the interaction of Purusha with Buddhi and other constituents.

अध्यवसायो बुद्धिर्धर्मो ज्ञानं विराग ऐश्वर्यम् । सात्त्विकमेतद्रूपं तामसमस्माद्विपर्यस्तम् ॥ २३ ॥ (Samk. 23)[5]

adhyavasāyo buddhirdharmo jñānaṁ virāga aiśvaryam । sāttvikametadrūpaṁ tāmasamasmādviparyastam ॥ 23 ॥ (Samk. 23)

Mahat or Buddhi

The intellect is an instrument which receives the ideas and images conveyed through the organs of sense, and the mind, constructs them into a conclusive idea, and presents this idea to the Self. The function of the intellect is determination (Nischaya or Will). Before one engages in any matter, one first observes and considers, then one reflects and then determines. Then one proceeds to act. This ascertainment: "Such act is to be done by me" is the determination of the intellect (Adhyavasaya).[1]

Thus, Buddhi is defined as the determining Principle; Virtue, Wisdom, Dispassion and Power constitute its form (when affected by Sattva) and the reverse of these when affected by Tamas. The determination of the duty is the characteristic property of Buddhi - which appears as if endued with intelligence by contact with the intelligence of Purusha.[8]

The Intellect and its Functions

Tile intellect or the Buddhi is the most important of all the products of Prakrti . The senses present their objects to the intellect. The intellect exhibits them to the purusha. The intellect discriminates the difference between purusha and Prakrti . 

The intellect is the instrument or organ which is the medium between the other organs and the Self. All ideas derived from sensation, reflection, or consciousness are deposited in the chief or great instrument, intellect, before they can be made known to the Self. They convey impressions or ideas with the properties or effects of pleasure, pain and indifference, accordingly as they are influenced by the qualities of Sattva (purity), Rajas (passion) or Tamas (darkness).  

The intellect appears to be intelligent on account of the reflection of Purusha which is very near to it, though by itself, it is really non-intelligent.   

Ahankara

अभिमानोऽहंकार: तस्माद्विविध: प्रवर्तते सर्ग: । एकादशकश्च गणस्तन्मात्रपञ्चकश्चैव ॥ २४ ॥ (Samk. 24)[5]

abhimāno'haṁkāra: tasmādvividha: pravartate sarga: । ekādaśakaśca gaṇastanmātrapañcakaścaiva ॥ 24 ॥ (Samk. 24)

Self-assertion is Ahamkara. From it proceeds the twofold evolution only; the elevenfold set and also the fivefold Tanmatras.

All that is considered (alochita) and reasoned (mata) refers to me, in this I am competent, all those objects of sense are for my sake only, this does not concern any one else but me, hence I am - such Abhimana, self assertion or consciousness by reference to oneself, from its having an uncommon or unique operation of its own, is called Ahamkara, by working upon which Buddhi determines that "this is to be done by me".[6]

Agency belongs to egoism—the Ahankara or the I-maker—which is itself a product of Prakrti , but not to the Purusha or Self who is always a silent witness.   

Manas

The Mind or Manas is both an organ of sensation and action. The Indriyas or senses receive simple impressions from without. The mind cooperates with the senses, and the impressions are perceived.[1]

उभयात्मकमत्र मन: सङ्कल्पमिन्द्रियं च साधर्म्यात् । गुणपरिणामविशेषान्नानात्वं बाह्यभेदाश्च ॥ २७ ॥ (Samk. 27)[5]

ubhayātmakamatra mana: saṅkalpamindriyaṁ ca sādharmyāt । guṇapariṇāmaviśeṣānnānātvaṁ bāhyabhedāśca ॥ 27 ॥ (Samk. 27)

Among the Indriyas, Manas possess the nature of both. It is deliberative and is as well an Indriya (सङ्कल्पमिन्द्रियं च) as it is homogeneous with the rest. Sankalpam is the the uncommon or distinctive function of the Manas. From the materials of the senses, Manas creates percepts, which are transferred to Ahamkara. Ahamkara evaluates them either as concerning itself or not concerning itself. Thus coloured with the personal equation, they are next taken up by Buddhi, which makes certain their true nature and determines conduct accordingly.[6]

The mind ponders, the intellect determines, and egoism becomes conscious. The functions of mind, intellect and egoism can be instantaneous as well as gradual.

Swami Sivananda says[1]

" Intellect, egoism, mind and the eye see a form at once, in one instant, and come immediately to a conclusion. ("This is a jar."). The same three, with tongue, at once relish taste; with the nose smell; and so on with the ear and the skin. The function is also occasionally gradual. A man going along a road sees an object at a distance. A doubt arises in his mind whether it is a post or a man. He then sees a bird sitting on it. Then the doubt is removed. In above example the intellect makes a determination that it is a post only. Then the ego says - I am certain that it is a post only. The intellect, the mind and egoism are the door-keepers. The five senses of perception or Jnana-Indriyas are the gates. The intellect is the instrument or organ which is the medium between the senses and the Self."

It is established that Buddhi is supreme among the Indriyas. It is the principal means of accomplishing the apparently contradictory purpose of Purusha, namely Experience and Release.

Compare and Contrast of Manifest, Unmanifest and Knower

Having proved the effect to be "existent", a fact favorable to prove the existence of Prakrti , the author states the similarities and differences between the व्यक्तम् । Manifest (like Mahat, Ahamkara etc), अव्यक्तम् ।Unmanifest (Pradhana or Prakrti ) and पुरुषः । Purusha (Knower). A right comprehension of these aspects is conducive to attaining discriminative wisdom.[2][8]

हेतुमदनित्यमव्यापि सक्रियमनेकमाश्रितं लिंङ्गम् । सावयवं परतन्त्रं व्यक्तं विपरीतमव्यक्तम् ॥ १० ॥(Samk. 10)[5]

त्रिगुणमविवेकि विषय: सामान्यमचेतनं प्रसवधर्मि । व्यक्तं तथा प्रधानं तद्विपरीतस्तथा च पुमान् ॥ ११ ॥(Samk. 11)[5]

Qualities व्यक्तम् । Manifest (like Mahat, Ahamkara etc) अव्यक्तम् ।Unmanifest (Pradhana or Prakrti ) पुरुषः । Purusha (Knower/Spectator)
हेतुमत् । Hetumat : Possessing or dependent on a cause Causeless Causeless
अनित्यम् । Anityam : Non-eternal, perishable Eternal Eternal
अव्यापि । Avyapi : Not pervasive, finite All pervading All pervading
सक्रियम् । Sakriyam : Active, mobile Motionless, immutable Motionless, immutable
अनेकम् । Anekam : Multiform, manifold Single Singleness yet Multiplicity (as per Samkhya Karika 18)
आश्रितम् । Asritam : Dependent on its cause Self sustained Self sustained
लिंङ्गम् । Lingam : Mark (of inference), Characteristic, Mergent Subject of the mark or non-mergent Subject of the mark or non-mergent
सावयवं । Savayavam : Made up of parts A whole unit A whole unit
परतन्त्रं । Paratantram : Subordinate Supreme Supreme
त्रिगुणम् । Trigunam : Consists of three Gunas in a disturbed state. Consists of three Gunas in equilibrium Not constituted by the three Gunas
अविवेकि । Aviveki : Non-Discriminative Non-Discriminative Discriminating
विषय: । Vishaya : Objective Objective Subjective
सामान्यम । Samanyam : Common, apprehended simultaneously by several persons. Common, apprehended simultaneously by several persons. Not common
अचेतनम् । Achetanam : Non-intelligent Non-intelligent Intelligent
प्रसवधर्मि । Prasavadharmi : Productive Productive Non Prolific

सत्कार्यवादः ॥ Sat-Karyavada

Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः । Theories of Origin of Universe) is one of the common topics discussed by the Darshanas. Samkhya very clearly advocates Satkaryavada adopting the theory of evolution and involution. The cause and effect are the undeveloped and developed states of one and the same substance.[6]

  1. There cannot be any production of something out of nothing. That which is not cannot be developed into that which is. There must be a material out of which a product is developed. There can be no production of what is absolutely non-existent; eg., a man's horn.
  2. There must be some determinate material cause for every product. Cream, for instance can form on milk only and never on water.
  3. Everything cannot occur everywhere at all times, and anything possible must be produced from something competent to produce it. That which does not exist cannot be brought into existence by an agent. It would be useless to grind ground-nut, unless the oil existed in it. The manifestation of the oil is a proof that it was contained in the groundnut and consequently, a proof of the existence of the source from which it is derived. The effect truly exists beforehand in its cause. This is one of the central features of the Samkhya system of philosophy.
  4. Cause is a substance in which the effect subsists in a latent form. Just as the whole tree world exists in a latent or dormant state in the seed, so also the whole world exists in a latent state in Prakrti , the Avyakta (unevolved), or Avyakrita (undifferentiated). The effect is of the same nature as the cause.[1] This is called as the Law of the Identity of Cause and Effect. The effect, therefore, is never non-existent ; whether before its production, or after its destruction, it is always existent in the cause.
  5. The relation of cause and effect is that of the producer and the produced. Cause is that which possesses the potentiality of becoming the effect, and this potentiality is nothing but the unrealised state of the effect.
  6. The effect is seen to possess the nature of the cause, e.g., a coin still possesses the properties of the gold of which it is made.
  7. The doctrine of Parinama or transformation (प्रकृतिपरिणामवादः), is that explains the origin of the effect. As all effects are contained in their causes in an unmanifested form, the 'production' or manifestation of an effect is merely a transformation of the cause.
  8. Matter is indestructible. There is no such thing as total destruction. In destruction the effect is involved into its cause. That is all.

Proofs of non-difference of Cause (Prakrti ) and Effect (Mahat and others)

The proofs establishing the non-difference of the effect from the cause in essence are explained by the following [2]

a) the cloth (effect) is not different from the yarns (constituting it) - because it subsists in the yarns.

b) the cloth and yarns cannot be different things, because the latter is the constituent cause of the former.

c) the cloth and yarns cannot be different, because there is neither conjunction nor separation between them which is seen in the case where things are different from one another.

d) the cloth does not contain in itself any product which makes its weight different from that of the yarn constituting it.

Accordingly, the Effect is ever existent is also fully established. Through this and a series of other logical deductions the Samkhyan theory of evolution - Satkaryavada is further supported.

Thus,according to the Samkhya theory, the efficient cause or Nimmitta-Karaṇa of the world is Puruṣa – ‘the Supreme Consciousness’ and the material cause or Upadana-Karaṇa is Prakṛti – ‘the matter. Body or Sarira, sense-organs or Indriyas and mind or Manas all are the evolutes of the Prakṛti or the main material principle. Ordinarily, we consider the mind to be conscious in nature. But on grounds of Samkhya, Manas or mind is also a matter, being the evolute of the main physical principle or Prakṛti.[7]

Purusha is the witness-subject. Puruṣa is neither body, nor sense-organ, nor is it mind. Puruṣa is the conscious spirit and a pure witness or Kevala-Sakṣin. He is also known as Svayam-Jyoti or self-conscious with happiness. There is one indwelling Puruṣa in every individual who appears as sentient.[7]

The Universe

The world is evolved with its different elements when the equilibrium in Prakrti is disturbed. The countless Purushas exert a mechanical force on Prakrti which distracts the equipoise of Prakrti and produces a movement. Then the evolution of the universe starts.[1]

The process of Evolution

 
Courtesy : Dr. K. Varalakshmi, Deputy Director, Sanskrit Academy, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India

Prakrti is the root of the universe. Prakrti is both the material and the efficient cause of the universe. Prakrti evolves under the influence of Purusha. Mahat or Intellect, is the first product of the evolution of Prakrti . Ahankara arises after Buddhi. Mind is born of Ahankara. It carries out the orders of the will through the organs of action (Karmendriyas). It reflects and doubts (Sankalpa-Vikalpa). It synthesises the sense data into percepts. The mind takes part in both perception and action. There is no separate Prana Tattva in the Samkhya system. The Vedanta has a separate Prana Tattva. In the Samkhya system, mind, with the organs, produces the five vital airs. Prana is a modification of the senses. It does not subsist in their absence.   

The course of evolution is as follows.[1][7]

  1. One pure Prakrti is the balanced condition of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. (Sattva- rajas-tamasāṁ-samyāvasṭhā-prakṛtiḥ). Before creation the change in Prakrti is homogeneous, in which the three gunas are held in a state of equilibrium.
  2. From one pure Prakṛti evolves the cosmic Buddhi or Mahat (Prakṛter Mahān) by the disturbance in the equilibrium of the Gunas.
  3. From Mahat evolves the cosmic Ahankara or the principle of egoism (Mahato’haṅkāro)
  4. From Ahankara emanate the ten senses and the mind on the subjective side, and the five subtle Tanmatras on the objective side.
    • Pancha Karmendriyas (5 Indriyas of Action : Include powers located in Hands, Feet, Speech, Excretory Organs, Organs of Generation)
    • Pancha Jnanendriyas (5 Indriyas of Cognition : Include powers located in Eye, Ear, Nose, Tongue, Skin)
    • One Manas (Ahaṅkārāt-paňca-taṇmātrāṅi-ubhayaṁ-indriyaṁ)
    • Pancha Tanmatras (5 Subtle Elements : Include Smell, Taste, Form, Touch and Sound)
  5. From the five Taṇmatras evolve the five Mahabhutas (5 Gross Elements : Include Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether) (Taṇmātrebhyaḥ-sṭhūla-bhūtāni)
  6. Puruṣa (Puruṣa-iti-paňcavimśatir-gaṇaḥ)

Akasa (ether) has the property of sound which is the Vishaya or object for the ear. Vayu (air) has the property of touch which is the Vishaya for the skin. Tejas (fire) has the property of form or colour which is the Vishaya for the eye. Apas (water) has the property of taste which is the Vishaya for the tongue. Prithvi (earth) has the property of odour which is the Vishaya for the nose. Each of these elements, after the first, has also the property of the preceding besides its own.

Involution of the Creation

During dissolution of the world, the products return by a reverse movement into the preceding stages of development , and ultimately into Prakrti . Earth merges in its cause, water. Water merges in fire, fire merges in air, air in Akasa and Akasa in Ahankara, Ahankara in Mahat, and Mahat in Prakrti . This is the process of involution. There is no end to Samsara or the play of Prakrti . This cycle of evolution and involution has neither a beginning nor an end.

Samkhya is Nir-Ishvara

Theism or Non-theistic approach of Samkhya has been highly debated in scholarly circles. The system of Samkhya has undergone many changes in the hands of various writers at different times and it is difficult to guess which of these can be genuinely attributed to Kapila.

The original Samkhya advocated the existence of One Supreme Power, Ishvara (thus monistic and theistic). But the classical Samkhya, perhaps under the influence of Jainism and Early Buddhism, many scholars believe, became atheistic. Samkhya may be classified as Astika, as it believes in the authority of Vedas, but it does not establish the non-existence of Ishvara. It only shows that Purusha and Prkrti are sufficient to explain this Universe and hence does away with the hypothesis of Ishvara. Some commentators have tried to repudiate the existence of Ishvara, while later commentators like Vijnanabhikshu have tried to revive the necessity for admitting Ishvara.

Of the various versions of this philosophy, Shrimad Bhagavata's account of Kapila's Samkhya materially differs from the Samkhya of the Samkhya Karika, for, while the former is definitely theistic, the later is at least tacitly atheistic, for it is absolutely silent about Ishvara; apparently one theory that has no place for Ishvara in this system.[9]

The Samkhya system is called Nir-Isvara (without Ishvara). It is non-theistical but not atheistical, because it does not deny the existence of Supreme being. It is Nir-Ishvara, as it explains all and every fact of experience while not referring to and without invoking the intervention of a divine agency.[6]

The creation produced by Prakrti has an existence of its own, independent of all connection with the particular Purusha to which it is united. So the Sankhyas say that there is no need for an intelligent Creator of the world, or even of any superintending power. According to Vedanta, Prakrti is non-intelligent. An intelligent Creator alone can have a thought-out plan for the universe. Prakrti is only a Sahkari (helper).[1]

Moksha for the Purusha or Liberation

Purusha is eternally free. Union of Purusha with Prakrti due to non-discrimination is bondage; the failure to discriminate between Purusha and Prakrti is the cause of Samsara or bondage; and disunion of Purusha and Prakrti due to discrimination is emancipation. Release is not merging in the Absolute but isolation from Prakrti .    

The objective of the Samkhya System is to effect the liberation of the Purusha or Self. This is done by conveying the correct knowledge of the twenty-four constituent principles of creation and rightly discriminating the Self from them.[1]

The universe is described by this school as one created by purusa-prakrti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. During the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage is called kaivalya (कैवल्य । liberation), by the Samkhya school.      

How Liberation is effected

When the separation of the soul from the body takes place by destruction of the effects of virtue, vice and the rest, then there is the final and absolute emancipation. When the fruits of acts cease, and body - both gross and subtle, dissolves. The soul attains the state called Kaivalya. It is freed from the three kinds of pain. The Linga-Deha or subtle body which migrates from one gross body to another in successive births, is composed of intellect, egoism, mind, the five organs of knowledge, the five organs of action and the five Tanmatras.  

The impressions of actions done in various births are embedded in the subtle body. The conjunction of the Linga-Deha with the gross  physical body constitutes birth and separation of the Linga-Deha from the gross physical body is death. This Linga-Deha is destroyed by the knowledge of the Purusha.  

Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution of prakruti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha.

Samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every soul. Samkhya regards Avidya (अविद्या । ignorance) as the root cause of suffering and Samsara (संसार । bondage). The way out of this suffering is through viveka (विवेक । knowledge). Moksha (मोक्ष । liberation), states Samkhya school, results from knowing the difference between prakruti and purusha.

Purusha, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of prakrti such as Buddhi and Ahamkara. This results in endless transmigration and suffering. However, once the realization arises that Purusha is distinct from prakrti, is more than empirical ego, and that Purusha is deepest conscious self within, the Self gains Kaivalya (कैवल्य । isolation) and Moksha (मोक्ष । liberation).[1]

Relation of Prakrti and Purusha after Release

वत्सविवृद्धिनिमित्तं क्षीरस्य यथा प्रवृत्तिरज्ञस्य । पुरुषविमोक्षनिमित्तं तथा प्रवृत्ति: प्रधानस्य ॥ ५७ ॥ (Samk. 57)[5]

As the unconscious milk functions for the sake of nourishment of the calf, so also the Prakrti functions for the sake of release of Purusha.[6] Just as people engage in acts to relieve anxiety or desires, so does Prakrti energize for the purpose of the release of Purusha.

तस्मान्न बध्यतेऽद्धा न मुच्यते नापि संसरति कञ्चित् । संसरति बध्यते मुच्यते च नानाश्रया प्रकृति: ॥ ६२ ॥ (Samk. 62)[5]

No Purusha is ever bound, nor is released, nor transmigrates. Prakrti , being the support of manifold creations, is bound, is released, and transmigrates. Bondage, migration and release are ascribed to the Purusha, in the same manner as defeat and victory are attributed to the king, though actually occurring to his soldiers, who undertake the action. In the same manner, experience and release, though really belonging to Nature are attributed to the Purusha, on the account of the non-discrimination of Prakrti and Purusha. Once the Truth is revealed to Purusha, and experience and release have been accomplished there is nothing left to be done and hence Nature ceases from Prolific activity.[6]

रङ्गस्थ इत्युपेक्षक एको दृष्टाहमित्युपरमत्यन्या । सति संयोगेऽपि तयो: प्रयोजनं नास्ति सर्गस्य ॥ ६६ ॥ (Samk. 66)[5]

"She has been see by me" says the one (Purusha) and so retires; "I have been seen " says the other (Prakrti ) and ceases to act. Hence though there exists a conjunction, it affords no motive towards further creation.

By the attainment of perfect wisdom, Virtue and the rest become devoid of casual energy; yet Purusha or Spirit remains awhile invested with the body as potter's wheel continues to revolve by the force of the impulse previously imparted to it. Release involves the ceasing of bondage of Prakrti and does not imply the acquisition of a new state or condition, but consists merely in the removal of a veil or shadow, whereas the Body is dependent on the causes for its very existence. These causes are Dharma and A-Dharma or merit or demerit, collectively called as Karma.Karma is of three types

  • Prarabdha or Operative Karma
  • Sanchita or Potential (stored) Karma
  • Agami or Future (to come in future) Karma

On the attainment of discriminative knowledge, Sanchita Karma in seed-form is burst and rendered non-germinative, Agami Karma is also precluded. Thus only the Prarabhda Karma remains. Acquired by acts performed in previous life, operative in present life, it goes on sustaining till it is exhausted in its natural course and the Body which was supported by it, automatically drops down. It is in this state, where the discriminative knowledge is perfectly developed before the Prarabdha has worked itself out, the Incarnate Purusha in question is released, but remains awhile burdened with the Body. This is Jivan-mukti or release during life.

When (in due course) separation from the Body takes place and there is cessation of the activity of the Pradhana from her, purpose having been fulfilled, the Purusha attains both absolute and final Kaivalya.[8]

Other forms of Samkhya teach that Moksha is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of liberation, where Sattva guna predominates.

Shrimad Bhagavadgita and Samkhya

Shrimad Bhagavadgita Chapter 2 (Slokas 12 to 30) explain the Samkhya philosophy and hence is called Samkhya Yoga. The second chapter in removing the worry in Arjuna has its objectives of eternalness of Atman and the detached performance of one’s assigned duties (karma). To realize this atman one requires wisdom or budhhi as the usual sensual organs like eyes, ears, mouth, etc cannot perceive it.

Sri Krishna begins to enlighten Arjuna by presenting what is known as Samkhya- the analytical study of matter and Atman (आत्मन्) (2.11-30). To alleviate Arjuna's distress (at the thought of killing his friends and relatives), Krishna contrasts the eternality of the Atman (the real self) with the temporary nature of the material body (Atma's outer covering). The Atman, Krishna teaches, is eternal. It continues to exist after the death of the body: "For the Atman there is no such thing as birth or death. And having once existed, he never ceases to be. He is unborn, eternal, ever-existing, undying, and primeval. He does not die when the body is finished" (2.20). Krishna further explains that, at death, the Atman transmigrates to a new body: "As a person puts on new clothes, putting aside those garments that are old and worn, similarly, the Atman accepts new material bodies, giving up the old and useless ones" (2.22).

What Samhya called as Purusha, The Gita explained it as Atman (आत्मन्), the eternal principle which neither dies nor takes birth.

After the conclusion of the Mahabharata war, Vidura spoke (अनुशासनपर्व) to the afflicted Dhritharasthra, who was lamenting for the death of his sons. Vidura spoke strongly but compassionately to his brother about the nature of this world. Dhritharastha needed to develop detachment and not lament because lamentation would give him nothing. He had to be prepared for giving up his attachment, while Yudhisthira needed to act responsibly to lead the kingdom. As Dhritharasthra was hearing about detachment, Vyasadeva, Krishna and Bhishma were advising Yudhisthira to give up so-called detachment and indifference towards the kingdom because it was time for Yudhsthira to be involved to create a new dharmik order. Dharmik scriptures give prescription according to the need of the person.

References

  1. 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 202-216
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Jha, Ganganatha (1965) The Tattva-Kaumudi, Vachaspati Mishra's Commentary on the Samkhya Karika. Poona : Oriental Book Agency
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Samkhya Paper By Sri. Umapati Nath Published in Academia
  4. Dasgupta, Surendranath (2012 7th Reprint) A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 1. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
  5. 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 Samkhya Karikas
  6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Sinha, Nandalal (1915) The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI). Allahabad : The Panini Office
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Banarjee, Debashri. Paper : Different tenets of Indian Philosophy; As conceived from Indian Point of View Published by Academia
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Jha, Ganganatha. (1896) Tattva-Kaumudi (Sankhya) of Vachaspati Mishra (English Translation with the Sanskrit Text) Bombay: Theosophical Publication
  9. Dasgupta, Surendranath. (5th Reprint : 2011) A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 4 : Indian Pluralism. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.