Changes

# a subjective organization of culture.  

# a subjective organization of culture.  

About a decade later, Allport (1955) critically considered seven more concepts closely related to self and ego: the bodily sense, self-identity, ego enhancement, ego extension, rational agent, self-image, and propriate striving. He also mentioned yet another definition of the self, suggested by P. A. Bertocci (1945), as a “knower, thinker, feeler, and doer - all in one blended unit of a sort that guarantees the continuance of all becoming.” Interestingly, this definition of the self is an almost exact translation of the Upanishadic view of the person as one who knows, feels, and acts (jñata, bhokta, karta).<ref name=":2" /> Hume affirmed that the mind was "nothing but a bundle

About a decade later, Allport (1955) critically considered seven more concepts closely related to self and ego: the bodily sense, self-identity, ego enhancement, ego extension, rational agent, self-image, and propriate striving. He also mentioned yet another definition of the self, suggested by P. A. Bertocci (1945), as a “knower, thinker, feeler, and doer - all in one blended unit of a sort that guarantees the continuance of all becoming.” Interestingly, this definition of the self is an almost exact translation of the Upanishadic view of the person as one who knows, feels, and acts (jñata, bhokta, karta).<ref name=":2" />

Seminal contributions in defining selfhood came from the works of William James, C. H. Cooley, G. H. Mead, and Freud, whose ideas have continued to the revival in psychological studies of selfhood and related topics. Many other Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume, Leibniz, Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Skinner and later on Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg to name a few, denied or affirmed the existence of Self and proposed modern theories about self and knowledge. In the present article only those western perspectives which are similar to the Upanishadic concepts have been discussed as they pertain to the scope of the topic.<ref name=":2" />  

Seminal contributions in defining selfhood came from the works of William James, C. H. Cooley, G. H. Mead, and Freud, whose ideas have continued to the revival in psychological studies of selfhood and related topics. Many other Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume, Leibniz, Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Skinner and later on Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg to name a few, denied or affirmed the existence of Self and proposed modern theories about self and knowledge. In the present article only those western perspectives which are similar to the Upanishadic concepts have been discussed as they pertain to the scope of the topic.<ref name=":2" />  

=== Defining Self - Indian Tradition ===

=== Defining Self - Indian Tradition ===

Many Indian and Western scholars, in the recent decades have studied and presented the concept of Self based on Indian perspectives given in the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Vedas]], [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varna and ashrama dharmas]], [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]], in the philosophical texts such as the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|shad-darshanas]], the Brahmasutras, the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], the Itihasas, the Puranas, and Tantras etc., all of which influence the Indian psychological make-up.<ref name=":0" />  

Many Indian and Western scholars, in the recent decades have studied and presented the concept of self based on Indian perspectives given in the [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|Vedas]], [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varna and ashrama dharmas]], [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]], in the philosophical texts such as the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|shad-darshanas]], the Brahmasutras, the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], the Itihasas, the Puranas, and Tantras etc., all of which influence the Indian psychological make-up.<ref name=":0">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 65 - 91)</ref>  

In Kathopanishad, the nature of Self is summarized by Yama as the eternal principle in person that never changes.<ref name=":3">Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 116 - 122)</ref><blockquote>''"This principle, Yama says, is tinier than the atom and larger than the largest of things, it is the One underlying the Many, the Permanent (nitya) behind the Ephemeral (anitya) in the entire universe. It cannot be divided or destroyed; the Self is not killed by the destruction of the body. It is by knowing the changeless Self behind all the changes that one attains immortality."''</blockquote>A few important Upanishadic references dealing with the two central topics of inquiry: the nature of the Self and the nature of reality as a whole, are mentioned below.<ref name=":3" />

In Kathopanishad, the nature of Self is summarized by Yama as the eternal principle in person that never changes.<ref name=":3">Paranjpe, A. C. (2006) ''Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought.'' New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 116 - 122)</ref><blockquote>''"This principle, Yama says, is tinier than the atom and larger than the largest of things, it is the One underlying the Many, the Permanent (nitya) behind the Ephemeral (anitya) in the entire universe. It cannot be divided or destroyed; the Self is not killed by the destruction of the body. It is by knowing the changeless Self behind all the changes that one attains immortality."''</blockquote>A few important Upanishadic references dealing with the two central topics of inquiry: the nature of the Self and the nature of reality as a whole, are mentioned below.<ref name=":3" />

Of the six darshana shastras, the Vedanta is the strongest supporter of the doctrine of the Self. The Sankhya and Yoga also affirm a permanent Self.  

Of the six darshana shastras, the Vedanta is the strongest supporter of the doctrine of the Self. The Sankhya and Yoga also affirm a permanent Self.  

=== Terminology of Consciousness and Self ===

=== Terminologies of Consciousness and Self ===

In many texts we find the two related terms “consciousness” and “self” used and expressed in various ways. In this section, the two concepts are clarified, the different senses they convey and their notations are discussed.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 94)</ref>

In many texts we find the two related terms “consciousness” and “self” used and expressed in various ways. In this section, the two concepts are clarified, the different senses they convey and their notations are discussed.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 94)</ref>

# '''self''' (with a lower case "s") at the bodily level: A person who wills, acts and feels, the Jīva (empirical self) in Advaita. Jiva is embodied consciousness, whereas jiva-sākṣin (as in ''self'') is the witnessing ''consciousness''. We may also use “self” in a general nonspecific sense to refer to self at all its levels, where a distinction is not warranted.

# '''self''' (with a lower case "s") at the bodily level: A person who wills, acts and feels, the Jīva (empirical self) in Advaita. Jiva is embodied consciousness, whereas jiva-sākṣin (as in ''self'') is the witnessing ''consciousness''. We may also use “self” in a general nonspecific sense to refer to self at all its levels, where a distinction is not warranted.

=== Jiva - A Composite of Sharira, Manas and Atman ===

== Jiva - A Composite of Sharira, Manas and Atman ==

A human being is not merely confined to the appearance it projects, that is, the physical contours and aspects of the body. It is a collection of three bodies (sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) encompassing the gross elements to the subtle layers of the mind that act as encasements for the true Self. The Taittiriya Upanishad presents the Vedic conceptualization of the mind-body complex, i.e., jiva.<ref>Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref>  

A human being is not merely confined to the appearance it projects, that is, the physical contours and aspects of the body. It is a collection of three bodies (sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) encompassing the gross elements to the subtle layers of the mind that act as encasements for the true Self. The Taittiriya Upanishad presents the Vedic conceptualization of the mind-body complex, i.e., jiva.<ref>Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref>  

Body, mind, and consciousness are not only conceptually distinct, but are also mutually irreducible in the human context. Consciousness is qualitatively different from the body and the mind with which it may be associated. For this reason, though it is associated with a mind at a given time, it does not interact with it. The body and the mind, unlike consciousness, are physical; and they can interact with each other and are influenced by each other. However, it is important to note that a mind cannot be reduced into its physical constituents and a body cannot be transformed into a mind even though they influence each other within a person. They function differently. From this perspective, the body is conceived as gross matter that permits disintegration. However, mind being a subtle form of matter is not constrained by spatiotemporal variables in the same manner as the gross body does. The body disintegrates irretrievably at death. The mind, however, has the potential to survive bodily death.<ref name=":1" />

Body, mind, and consciousness are not only conceptually distinct, but are also mutually irreducible in the human context. Consciousness is qualitatively different from the body and the mind with which it may be associated. For this reason, though it is associated with a mind at a given time, it does not interact with it. The body and the mind, unlike consciousness, are physical; and they can interact with each other and are influenced by each other. However, it is important to note that a mind cannot be reduced into its physical constituents and a body cannot be transformed into a mind even though they influence each other within a person. They function differently. From this perspective, the body is conceived as gross matter that permits disintegration. However, mind being a subtle form of matter is not constrained by spatiotemporal variables in the same manner as the gross body does. The body disintegrates irretrievably at death. The mind, however, has the potential to survive bodily death.<ref name=":1" />

=== Metaphysical and Physical Self ===

 

 

=== Metaphysical and Physical Self ===

In previous section we saw how the Jīva or the person, is a unique composite of consciousness, mind, and body.  A review of the study of self in India reveals that indeed the core of Indian ''self'' is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as psychologists. Thus we find a general agreement that the '''metaphysical ''self'', [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]''', is the real Self and it is embodied in a biological or physical body of the composite '''[[Jiva (जीवः)]]'''. This core distinction of Jiva from a mere human body is reflected in the treatment methods adopted in Ayurveda unlike those in modern medicine where a person is limited to a physical self.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  

In previous section we saw how the Jīva or the person, is a unique composite of consciousness, mind, and body.  A review of the study of self in India reveals that indeed the core of Indian ''self'' is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as psychologists. Thus we find a general agreement that the '''metaphysical ''self'', [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]''', is the real Self and it is embodied in a biological or physical body of the composite '''[[Jiva (जीवः)]]'''. This core distinction of Jiva from a mere human body is reflected in the treatment methods adopted in Ayurveda unlike those in modern medicine where a person is limited to a physical self.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />  

=== Psychological Self ===

=== Psychological Self ===

Beyond the physical self exist psychological self and social self, and both these concepts are brimming with cultural constructions. For example, the varna system is an important part of Indian social self, which has relevance for the Indian population and the Indian Diaspora but little relevance for other cultures. The manas or mind, chitta, buddhi, ahankara etc., form the psychological constructs of the person and are critical in understanding the psyche of Indians.<ref name=":0" />  

Beyond the physical self exist psychological self and social self, and both these concepts are brimming with cultural constructions. For example, the varna system is an important part of Indian social self, which has relevance for the Indian population and the Indian Diaspora but little relevance for other cultures. The manas or mind, chitta, buddhi, ahankara etc., form the psychological constructs of the person and are critical in understanding the psyche of Indians.<ref name=":0" />

 

 

A person must use buddhi for purification of the self, though it is subtle and does not seem to have any agency. Here the focus is on engaging the manas inwards with the buddhi, gradually eliminating outward attachments and withdrawing from the worldly activities. Apart from the focus, the gunas, sattva, rajas and tamas also play a significant role in determining the decisions the buddhi takes. Ahamkara used in the sense of ego, as in the concept of self in the West is because of its value in understanding how we perform activities.<ref name=":0" />  

=== Social Self ===

=== Social Self ===

In an attempt to differentiate the Indian concept of social self from that of the people in the West, some cross-cultural psychologists have shown that Indians have both independent and interdependent selves and are both individualistic and collectivist in their cognition. (Bhawuk page 90)

In an attempt to differentiate the Indian concept of social self from that of the people in the West, some cross-cultural psychologists have shown that Indians have both independent and interdependent selves and are both individualistic and collectivist in their cognition. (Bhawuk page 90)

The metaphysical self, Atman is embodied in a biological or physical self, and through the [[Varna Dharma (वर्णधर्मः)|varna system]] right at birth, the biological self acquires a '''social Self'''. With changing times though there is little adherence to the ashrama system on a mass scale, the idea and social construct still persists. With advancing age it is still not unusual for people to start slowing down on their worldly commitments and pass on the baton to the next generation.<ref name=":0">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 65 - )</ref>  There are many factors (social, economic, cultural, regional, ecological) that contribute towards the social self construct of person.  

There are many factors (social, economic, cultural, regional, ecological) that contribute towards the social self construct of person.  

# Varna System  

# Identity based on Varna System

# Ashrama System

# Identity based on Ashrama System

# Spiritual identity

# Spiritual identity

# Regional identity  

# Regional identity  

Depending on which phase of life one is in, the self is viewed differently. Lifestyle completely changes from phase to phase of the [[Ashrama Dharma (आश्रमधर्मः)|ashrama system]]. For example, as a student one ate less (alpahari), as a [[Grhasthashrama (गृहस्थाश्रमः)|grhastha]] there was no restriction on food, as a vanprastha he ate fruits and roots and as a sanyasi he begged for food and ate unconcernedly about taste. [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|Varna and Ashrama dharmas]] clearly defined one's occupation and role in the society and therefore, the Indian concept of Self is socially constructed and varies with occupation and stage of an Indian.<ref name=":0" />

The metaphysical self, Atman is embodied in a biological or physical self, and through the [[Varna Dharma (वर्णधर्मः)|varna system]] right at birth, the biological self acquires a '''social self'''. With changing times though there is little adherence to the ashrama system on a mass scale, the idea and social construct still persists. With advancing age it is still not unusual for people to start slowing down on their worldly commitments and pass on the baton to the next generation. Depending on which phase of life one is in, the self is viewed differently. Lifestyle completely changes from phase to phase of the [[Ashrama Dharma (आश्रमधर्मः)|ashrama system]]. For example, as a student one ate less (alpahari), as a [[Grhasthashrama (गृहस्थाश्रमः)|grhastha]] there was no restriction on food, as a vanprastha he ate fruits and roots and as a sanyasi he begged for food and ate unconcernedly about taste. [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|Varna and Ashrama dharmas]] clearly defined one's occupation and role in the society and therefore, the Indian concept of Self is socially constructed and varies with occupation and stage of an Indian.<ref name=":0" />

Spirituality can be seen to permeate the masses in India, and social life revolves around rituals that work as a symbolic reminder that people in this culture value spirituality. Small (e.g., vratas and pujas in a week, a paksha, monthly, annually), and big celebrations (such as the Kumbh Mela which meets every 12 years) mark the Indian lifestyle. Every day is dedicated to a deity and every person can choose a deity of his or her choice to worship. When Atman attains unity with the Supreme Being, brahman, and this realization or anubhuti is the goal of the human being. In that paradigm, when one experiences the real self, one experiences boundlessness or infinite state of supreme being. In other words, much like the social self that has the potential to grow infinitely, the real self has the potential to be limitless. Thus, the Indian concept of self expands to be infinite socially and contracts socially for the true self to expand to be infinite metaphysically. This conceptualization of the self is critical to the understanding of psychological processes in the Indian cultural context.<ref name=":0" />

=== Study of Self at various Levels ===

==== Social self based on Spiritual Identity ====

A person (jiva) may be studied from<ref name=":1" />

Spirituality can be seen to permeate the masses in India, and social life revolves around rituals that work as a symbolic reminder that people in this culture value spirituality. Small (e.g., vratas and pujas in a week, a paksha, monthly, annually), and big celebrations (such as the Kumbh Mela which meets every 12 years) mark the Indian lifestyle. Every day is dedicated to a deity and every person can choose a deity of his or her choice to worship.<ref name=":0" />

* a physiological perspective to assess influence of bodily processes on mental states and vice-versa.

* a physiological perspective to assess influence of bodily processes on mental states and vice-versa.

* the psychophysical perspectives of the mind to learn its functionality, factors influencing, controlling, and enhancing human potential and wellbeing.

* the psychophysical perspectives of the mind to learn its functionality, factors influencing, controlling, and enhancing human potential and wellbeing.

Thus a person can be studied at various levels; two of which are most  highly pertinent to psychology - the psychophysical and psycho-spiritual levels. The various concepts of self, are well grounded in different Indian philosophical and vedantic texts. The metaphysical self is most commonly visualized as [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], which is situated in a living being as a result of past [[Karma (कर्म)|karma]]. The physical self can further be classified as [[Sharira Traya (शरीरत्रयम्)|sharira-traya]] (the three bodies - sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) or [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|panchakoshas]] (constituting - annamaya, pranamaya, manomaya, vijnanamaya and anandamaya koshas). While social self is manifested by the various beings in different ways at different proportions, human beings are believed to be the only ones who can pursue [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]] (or liberation) [[Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ:)|purushartha]], enlightenment, jnana (or knowledge), or self-realization.  

Thus a person can be studied at various levels; two of which are most  highly pertinent to psychology - the psychophysical and psycho-spiritual levels. The various concepts of self, are well grounded in different Indian philosophical and vedantic texts. The metaphysical self is most commonly visualized as [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], which is situated in a living being as a result of past [[Karma (कर्म)|karma]]. The physical self can further be classified as [[Sharira Traya (शरीरत्रयम्)|sharira-traya]] (the three bodies - sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) or [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|panchakoshas]] (constituting - annamaya, pranamaya, manomaya, vijnanamaya and anandamaya koshas). While social self is manifested by the various beings in different ways at different proportions, human beings are believed to be the only ones who can pursue [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]] (or liberation) [[Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ:)|purushartha]], enlightenment, jnana (or knowledge), or self-realization.  

== Panchakosha model of self ==

 

=== Panchakosha model of self ===

Based on the Panchakoshas presented in the Taittriya Upanishad the following classification  gives rise to a model of Self having the following elements.<ref name=":0" />

Based on the Panchakoshas presented in the Taittriya Upanishad the following classification  gives rise to a model of Self having the following elements.<ref name=":0" />

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"