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Line 236: + − + − It is well-known that Vedas are said to have two important branches—Karma-kanda ([[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]] texts) and Jnana-kanda ([[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]). The Bhagavad Gita also speaks of two divisions—Karma and Jnana. <blockquote>लोकेऽस्मिन् द्विविधा निष्ठा पुरा प्रोक्ता मयानघ । ज्ञानयोगेन साङ्ख्यानां कर्मयोगेन योगिनाम् ॥ ३-३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 3.3)</blockquote>Meaning: In this world there is a two-fold path, as told earlier, O sinless one, the ‘Path-of-Knowledge (ज्ञानयोग)’ of the Samkhyans and the ‘Path-of-Action (कर्मयोग)’ of the Yogis. − − Bhakti or Upasana is placed under Karma-marga and is not given a separate place. The Ashtangayoga of Patanjali, all the Vaisnava schools, the Tantrika and Pasupata forms of Sadhana, and the yajna forms of Sadhana as prescribed in the Vedas would all be classified under Karma-marga. Under Jnana, the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and the [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]] forms of Sadhana are included. In the present context, Bhakti-marga is elucidated separately. − + Line 274:
Line 272: − + − + − − === Dvaita Sampradaya === − Dvaita outlines the means, sadhana for realization of the supreme end, [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Sadhana is a progressive endeavour and it mobilizes all the resources of personality. Madhva assimilates into his scheme of sadhana the entire heritage of the '''Upanisadic''' thought, the bhakti literature such as the '''Puranas''', the '''Agamas''', and the '''Itihasas''' including the '''Bhagavad-Gita'''. − − The foremost and the ultimate factor that brings about man’s liberation, attainment of moksa, is the grace, '''prasada of Narayana''' according to the Dvaita Sampradaya. ‘Without Narayana’s prasada, moksa is not possible’ says Madhva. There are several levels of grace that confers this boon. ‘The grace that responds to karma is the lowest, that, which is in answer to disciplines such as sravana, is of the middle level, and that which rewards the precious possession of knowledge is the highest’. This prasada is an ever-existent reality. All that is required of human effort is to actuate it towards the granting of moksa. It is ultimately Himself through His grace, which is indistinguishable from His essence because of the principle of Visesa, that effectuates the summum bonum of man, moved towards that end, by the spiritual endeavour of the aspirant.<ref name=":3" /> − − The Visnu-tattvavinirnaya lays down that ‘Visnu grants knowledge to the ignorant, grants liberation to the man of knowledge, and grants ananda to the liberated individual.’ Prasada is a continuously operative factor in spiritual life, and does not cease to be required even when the goal is accomplished. What brings grace to operational manifestation is bhakti of the aspirant. The two constituents of bhakti are knowledge of the greatness of God and love towards Him. This love must be steadfast and surpass in its intensity all other love including self-love. It is that height of bhakti that could invoke the necessary grace of Narayana for the purpose of moksa. There are different levels of bhakti, four levels stated in the Gita. Only the highest bhakti is what brings about the prasada for moksa.<ref name=":3" /> − − Madhva is one of the greatest philosophers of bhakti. For him, bhakti is omnipresent, as it were, in spiritual life. His work Anuvyakhyana records thus: Bhakti generates knowledge; knowledge, in its turn, generates bhakti, which, in its turn, generates the direct perception of God. This perception generates bhakti, which brings about mukti, liberation.’ It is the first means, and the constituent of the last end itself. Jayatirtha says that ‘parama-bhakti’ is the level of bhakti that brings about the final liberating grace of God. − − This bhakti must spring from knowledge, not mere emotion. Madhva characterizes it as a particular form of knowledge ‘Jnanasya visesa’. Its character and qualitative level depend upon the knowledge on which it is founded. The highest bhakti can spring from only the highest level of knowledge. Therefore, this bhakti must ensue from the immediate, direct and perceptual or intuitive apprehension of God. Madhva calls it aparoksa-jnana. This cannot be mere meditative imagination. Madhva insists that this bhakti must exceed the imaginative immediacy as stated in Brahmasutra-bhashya. Only the love engendered by the direct communion with the object of love can have the appropriate height and intensity. Hence, aparoksa-jnana is a necessity. − − The means prescribed to achieve perceptual experience of God is upasana or nididhyasana. This is meditative contemplation of God with love and longing for the vision. It paves the way for the direct experience of God through the invariable means of grace. The meditation should not be mixed with fear or animosity. It must be of the nature of ardent seeking. The intellectual understanding of God derived from revelation and philosophical investigation can be converted into direct experience only through loving meditation. Aparoksa-jnana is the final phase in the process of knowing God. To effect the transition from mediacy to immediacy, upasana is the essential means. Trivikrama Pandit explains it thus: ‘The accumulated karma, which prevents the emergence of the vision of Ananta, cannot be eliminated except through uninterrupted contemplation.’<ref name=":3">Paramahamsa, K. R. (2012) ''Dvaita Vedanta.'' Tirupati: Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. (Page 20-23)</ref> − − === Visishtadvaita Sampradaya === − All Bhakti schools agree in thinking that the Absolute cannot be reached by knowledge, as the Jnanavadins hold. They regard devotion to be the most effective means to realization. Jiva is in bondage because it does not know the truth that Vishnu is the Ultimate. The knowledge of this truth (Jnana) leads to His Prasada and through it to freedom from bondage. However, a certain level of fitness is required on the part of the Jiva for the knowledge to be acquired. A course of discipline for the Jiva is of absolute necessity and consists of several stages of mental and physical purificatory aspects. − − # '''Karma-yoga''' - At this stage the individual obtains the knowledge of his own self and Ishvara by means of studying the sacred literature (shravana). A sadhaka acts with dispassion, avoids bad actions and performs only those actions such as worship, dana (charity) in the divine name and meditation on Ishvara's nature. Both knowledge and actions thus purify him to make him fit for the next stage. − # '''Jnana-yoga''' - It is totally the way of knowledge. At this stage the individual has the conviction (chinta-visesha) that he is dependent on Ishvara and different from Prakrti. This leads him to Bhakti yoga. − # '''Bhakti-yoga''' - It is the way of devotion. At this stage the sadhaka is required to have incessant thought of Ishvara. Such thought happens when the eight-fold condition (ashtanga-yoga) is satisfied namely, [[Yama ( यमः )|yama]], [[Niyama (नियमः)|niyama]], [[Asanas (आसनानि)|asana]], [[Pranayama (प्राणायामः)|pranayama]], [[Pratyahara (प्रत्याहारः)|pratyahara]], [[Dharana (धारणा)|dharana]], [[Dhyana (ध्यानम्)|dhyana]] and [[Samadhi (समाधिः)|samadhi]]. According to this school of thought, seven-fold discipline has to be practiced, Sadhana-saptaka, and Ramanujacharya quotes in his Sribhashya the Vakyakara who describes them as follows: तल्लब्धिः विवेक-विमोकाभ्यासक्रियाकल्याणानवसादानुद्धर्षेभ्यः संभवान्निर्वचनाच्च। They are viveka (विवेकः), vimoka (विमोका), abhyasa (अभ्यासः), kriya (क्रिया), kalyana (कल्याणम्), anvasada (अनवसादः), anuddharsha (अनुद्धर्षः). While ascertaining the fimdamental factors leading to Bhakti, Vedanta Desika points out that four factors namely (1) Viveka, (2) Nirveda, (3) Virakti and (4) Bhiti are essential for developing Bhakti. − # '''Prapatti''': It is the same as complete self-surrender to Ishvara (saranagati). It is the disposition of knowledge. It happens once at the death of the body. It puts an end even to prarabdha karma. With it the Self is liberated to go back to Vaikuntha. Every Jiva is fit to have it.
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==== Sadhya in Dvaita Sampradaya ====
==== Sadhya in Dvaita Sampradaya ====
Dvaita metaphysics considers the Supreme Reality, the Brahman, Vishnu is self-distinguishing Absolute Self. As such, He is eminently personal.<ref name=":3" /> Brahman is the ground (base) of the universe. The universe consists of chetana (consciousness) and achetana (matter). It is not superimposed on Brahman. Brahman is considered as the Atman of the world (body). The world is real and there are three senses in which a thing can be considered real. A thing is real if it has<ref name=":6">Raghavendrachar, H. N. (1941) ''The Dvaita Philosophy and Its Place in the Vedanta.'' Mysore: The University of Mysore. (Page 12)</ref>
Dvaita metaphysics considers the Supreme Reality, the Brahman, Vishnu is self-distinguishing Absolute Self. As such, He is eminently personal.<ref name=":3">Paramahamsa, K. R. (2012) ''Dvaita Vedanta.'' Tirupati: Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. (Page 20-23)</ref> Brahman is the ground (base) of the universe. The universe consists of chetana (consciousness) and achetana (matter). It is not superimposed on Brahman. Brahman is considered as the Atman of the world (body). The world is real and there are three senses in which a thing can be considered real. A thing is real if it has<ref name=":6">Raghavendrachar, H. N. (1941) ''The Dvaita Philosophy and Its Place in the Vedanta.'' Mysore: The University of Mysore. (Page 12)</ref>
# an existence of its own (satta)
# an existence of its own (satta)
The Bhakti line of Sadhana lies intermediate between Jnana and Karma. It does not, like Karma, rely entirely upon the bodily processes and seek to control the higher mental centres by the lower bodily activities; nor, like Jnana, does it solely rest upon the transcendent functioning of reason. It seeks to elevate human consciousness through the divine emotion of love which subdues all lower passions and impulses. Bhakti combines law with love, vidhi (obligatory rites and processes) with raga (spontaneous love), and thus it seeks help from the body and its processes also. As it combines both forms of Sadhana, viz., controlling the higher by the lower and also the lower by the higher—it also achieves its end quickly.<ref name=":5" />
The Bhakti line of Sadhana lies intermediate between Jnana and Karma. It does not, like Karma, rely entirely upon the bodily processes and seek to control the higher mental centres by the lower bodily activities; nor, like Jnana, does it solely rest upon the transcendent functioning of reason. It seeks to elevate human consciousness through the divine emotion of love which subdues all lower passions and impulses. Bhakti combines law with love, vidhi (obligatory rites and processes) with raga (spontaneous love), and thus it seeks help from the body and its processes also. As it combines both forms of Sadhana, viz., controlling the higher by the lower and also the lower by the higher—it also achieves its end quickly.<ref name=":5" />
It is well-known that Vedas are said to have two important branches—Karma-kanda ([[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]] texts) and Jnana-kanda ([[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]). The Bhagavad Gita also speaks of two divisions—Karma and Jnana.<blockquote>लोकेऽस्मिन् द्विविधा निष्ठा पुरा प्रोक्ता मयानघ । ज्ञानयोगेन साङ्ख्यानां कर्मयोगेन योगिनाम् ॥ ३-३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 3.3)</blockquote>Meaning: In this world there is a two-fold path, as told earlier, O sinless one, the ‘Path-of-Knowledge (ज्ञानयोग)’ of the Samkhyans and the ‘Path-of-Action (कर्मयोग)’ of the Yogis.
The Ashtangayoga of Patanjali, all the Vaisnava schools, the Tantrika and Pasupata forms of Sadhana, and the yajna forms of Sadhana as prescribed in the Vedas would all be classified under Karma-marga. Under Jnana, the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and the [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]] forms of Sadhana are included. In the present context, Bhakti-marga is elucidated separately.<ref name=":5" />
=== Stages of Sadhana ===
=== Stages of Sadhana ===
One may note three distinct stages among various forms of Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />
One may note three distinct stages among various forms of Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Vaidika Yajnas''' - Involves dravya-tyaga (physical offering of material things and objects) and propitiation of the governing Devatas who are considered as the Almighty Power. Utmost importance is given to reverence and minutest details involved in the actual physical processes of yajnas. This kind of sadhana is best portrayed by the Vaidika yajnas - mostly Shrauta yajnas - as seen in the Brahmana literature.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Vaidika Yajnas''' - Involves dravya-tyaga (physical offering of material things and objects) and propitiation of the governing Devatas (Agni, Surya, Vayu etc.) who are considered as the Almighty Power. Utmost importance is given to reverence and minutest details involved in the actual physical processes of yajnas. This kind of sadhana is best portrayed by the Vaidika yajnas - mostly Shrauta yajnas - as seen in the Brahmana literature.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Upasana''' - Involves mental process of yajnas. Physical offering of materials and objects do not count as much as the feeling of reverence or worship. The bhava or the bhakti (devotion) becomes the most important element in worship (Bhavagrahi janardanah). Devatas who are the governing Almighty Powers, are also sought as the Holiest Personifications with divine love as the offering in various relationships between the worshipper and the worshipped. This is the basis of Sadhana advocated and elaborated in the Purana Literature. Here stuti of the devata, offering of phalam (fruits), patram (leaves), pushpam (flower) and toyam (water), along with love and reverence form the items of worship.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Upasana''' - Involves mental process of yajnas. Physical offering of materials and objects do not count as much as the feeling of reverence or worship. The bhava or the bhakti (devotion) becomes the most important element in worship (Bhavagrahi janardanah). Devatas who are the governing Almighty Powers, are also sought as the Holiest Personifications with divine love as the offering in various relationships between the worshipper and the worshipped. This is the basis of Sadhana advocated and elaborated in the Purana Literature. Here stuti of the devata, offering of phalam (fruits), patram (leaves), pushpam (flower) and toyam (water), along with love and reverence form the items of worship.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Jnana''' - Involves vichara and jnana which occupy the most prominent place. This is spoken of as Jnana-yajna in Bhagavad-gita and said to be superior to all other forms of worship. Here the externality of Devatas is replaced by internality and philosophy, and the constant meditation of the Absolute with a view to its realisation becomes the chief element in the course of spiritual discipline. This stage is elaborated in the Upanishadic literature. The Absolute is now recognised to be not merely consisting of feeling and love and intelligence, but is apprehended as transcending all these and hence to be reached by the Atman which also transcends intellect, feeling and love. The Almighty Power, termed Brahman is not any foreign Power or even any Person other than our own selves, but it is our own Higher Self termed Atman. The process does not involve "reaching" or "attaining," as in attaining things other than ourselves, but unfolding our own latent infinitude and gradually experience the higher states of expansion (Brahmabhavasca moksah). This form of Sadhana is peculiar to the Vedanta. The Jnanin or the liberated is not a ‘spiritual freak,’ as sometimes a mystic is wrongly supposed to be, but the man or the super-man “who has grown up to the full stature of humanity and united himself with that source of Life which is present everywhere.”<ref name=":5" />
# '''Jnana''' - Involves vichara and jnana which occupy the most prominent place. This is spoken of as Jnana-yajna in Bhagavad-gita and said to be superior to all other forms of worship. Here the externality of Devatas is replaced by internality and philosophy, and the constant meditation of the Absolute with a view to its realisation becomes the chief element in the course of spiritual discipline. This stage is elaborated in the Upanishadic literature. The Absolute is now recognised to be not merely consisting of feeling and love and intelligence, but is apprehended as transcending all these and hence to be reached by the Atman which also transcends intellect, feeling and love. The Almighty Power, termed Brahman is not any foreign Power or even any Person other than our own selves, but it is our own Higher Self termed Atman. The process does not involve "reaching" or "attaining," as in attaining things other than ourselves, but unfolding our own latent infinitude and gradually experience the higher states of expansion (Brahmabhavasca moksah). This form of Sadhana is peculiar to the Vedanta. The Jnanin or the liberated is not a ‘spiritual freak,’ as sometimes a mystic is wrongly supposed to be, but the man or the super-man “who has grown up to the full stature of humanity and united himself with that source of Life which is present everywhere.”<ref name=":5" />
It answers the epistemological question of what knowledge is by stating that “Everything that is around us is covered by brahman.” Alternatively, what is considered knowledge can be broken down into three parts: the controller, self and everything around the self, and the controller covering or permeating self and each of the elements around the self. Knowledge, it is implied, is not only knowing what we see around us in its variety as independent entities and agents, but to realize that each of the elements is permeated and controlled by brahman.<ref name=":72" />
It answers the epistemological question of what knowledge is by stating that “Everything that is around us is covered by brahman.” Alternatively, what is considered knowledge can be broken down into three parts: the controller, self and everything around the self, and the controller covering or permeating self and each of the elements around the self. Knowledge, it is implied, is not only knowing what we see around us in its variety as independent entities and agents, but to realize that each of the elements is permeated and controlled by brahman.<ref name=":72" />
Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology.
Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology.<ref name=":72" />
== Sadhana in Sampradayas ==
=== [[Sadhana in Sampradayas (सम्प्रदायेषु साधनम्)]] ===
The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />
The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />
== References ==
== References ==
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Yoga]]
[[Category:Yoga]]