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Line 181: − + − ==== Astronomical aspects ====+ − In the Aitareya Brahmana (3.44) we find the concept that Surya never raises or sets but it only flips at the end of daylight and returns with the bright side up on the next day. On reaching the end of the day, the sun flips such that the dark night side faces us. This concept was agreeable in the Rgveda suktas also (1.115.4 and 5.81.4). And that the earth was circular like a discus was known to the people in those times.<ref name=":1" /> − + + + + − + − That the '''rivers and ocean waters contain Agni''' is also expressed in the Rgveda. Agni is present in all living beings and the same is said to spread into the waters of rivers and oceans. <blockquote>यो अग्निः सप्तमानुषाः श्रितो विश्वेषु सिन्धुषु ॥ (Rg. Veda. 8.39.8)</blockquote>In the above mantra Sindu (सिन्धु) indicates both the rivers and oceans. It is said that Agni exists in the waters and it is well known that by the '''churning of the river water electricity is generated'''.+ − Rgveda clearly mentions the '''presence of Ratnas (gems) and treasures''' of gold etc which are the cause of prosperity, in the earth. <blockquote>रियं त इन्द्र पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.55.22)</blockquote><blockquote>पुरू वसूनि पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.51.5)</blockquote>+ + + Line 219:
Line 214: − + − − ==== Geography in Rgveda ==== − The geographical information in the Rigveda, to put it in a nutshell, more or less pertains to the area from Uttar Pradesh in the east to Afghanistan in the west, the easternmost river mentioned in the text being the Ganga, and the westernmost being the western tributaries of the Indus rivers.<ref>Talageri. Shrikant. G, (2000) The Rigveda - A Historical Analysis (Pages </ref> Line 229:
Line 221: − ==== Darshanika Tattva ====+ − + + − Rgveda involves the Vaktattva or speech aspects (including knowledge and contemplation), Yajurveda involves Manastattva or psychological aspects (personality, action, nature), and Samaveda includes Pranatattava or energy balance aspects (strength, cooperation). A coordination of the three tattavatas leads a person to attain Brahman. <blockquote>ब्रह्म वा ऋक् । अमृतं वा ऋक् । (Kous. Brah. 7.10)</blockquote><blockquote>प्राणो वा ऋक्। (Jaim. Brah. 1.112)</blockquote>Above such references in various brahmanas portray the darshanik aspects (philosophical) of Rgveda. We find information about [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], [[Vak (वाक्)|Vak (Speech)]], Prana (energy), Amruta (eternity), Veerya (propagation) etc. Thus, we find the description about attaining Brahman, the shabda Brahman (vaktattva), Prana or the energy, means to attain Amaratva (eternity), and magnificence by practicing Brahmacharya.<ref name=":6" />+ − ==== Social Aspects ====+ − + + + + + + + Line 241:
Line 240: − <blockquote>स्कन्दस्वामी नारायण उद्गीथ इति ते क्रमात् । चक्रुः सहैकमृग्भाष्यं पदवाक्यार्थगोचरम् ।। </blockquote>+ +
adding content under Social Aspects
== व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology of Rk ==
== व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology of Rk ==
Rigveda is made up of mantras called as Rk (ऋक् also called as ऋचः - Rchas) according to Shabdakalpadhruma.<ref>Shabdakapadhruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%8B See under Rik])</ref><blockquote>ऋच्यन्ते स्तूयन्ते देवा अनया । (ऋच् + क्विप् ।) वेदविशेषः । ऋग्वेदः । इत्यमरः ॥</blockquote>The (vaidik) devatas are offered worship and are prayed to using these Rk-s (ऋक्).
Rigveda is made up of mantras called as Rk (ऋक् also called as ऋचः - Rchas) according to Shabdakalpadhruma.<ref>Shabdakapadhruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%8B See under Rik])</ref><blockquote>ऋच्यन्ते स्तूयन्ते देवा अनया । (ऋच् + क्विप् ।) वेदविशेषः । ऋग्वेदः । इत्यमरः ॥</blockquote>The (vaidik) devatas are offered worship and are prayed to using these Rk-s (ऋक्). Rcha means prarthana (to pray) or stuti (to praise), thus it is synonymous with praising and worshipping. Devatas are invoked using these mantras. Another name for Mantra is Rcha (ऋचः), but all mantras are not Rcha-s (ऋचः). The Purusha Sukta, in the famed Sahasra-sirsha (सहस्रशीर्षा) mantra, mentions that Rcha-s (ऋचः) were the first to arise from Parameshavara. <blockquote>तस्माद्याज्ञात् सर्वहुतः ऋचः सामानि जज्ञिरे । छन्दांसि जज्ञिरे तस्माद्यजुस्तस्मादजायत । (Purusha Sukta) </blockquote>A collection of Rchas is called the Rigveda Samhita. The term 'Samhita' implies a collection or group of. It was first studied by Shakala (mentioned also as Shakalya) and further by Baskala and four other (rshis).<ref name=":1">Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) ''Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 94 to 127)</ref><blockquote>ऋचां समूह ऋग्वेदस्तमभ्यस्य प्रयत्नतः। पठितः शाकलेनादौ चतुर्मिस्तदनन्तरम्।। (Rk. Pratisakhya)</blockquote>All the aspects about rigveda vargeekarana, the shakas involved and extant texts, the arrangement of the mandalas and ashtakas are given in the article [[Veda Vargeekarana (वेदवर्गीकरणम्)|Veda Vargeekarana]].
Rcha means prarthana (to pray) or stuti (to praise), thus it is synonymous with praising and worshipping. Devatas are invoked using these mantras. Another name for Mantra is Rcha (ऋचः), but all mantras are not Rcha-s (ऋचः). The Purusha Sukta, in the famed Sahasra-sirsha (सहस्रशीर्षा) mantra, mentions that Rcha-s (ऋचः) were the first to arise from Parameshavara. <blockquote>तस्माद्याज्ञात् सर्वहुतः ऋचः सामानि जज्ञिरे । छन्दांसि जज्ञिरे तस्माद्यजुस्तस्मादजायत । (Purusha Sukta) </blockquote>A collection of Rchas is called the Rigveda Samhita. The term 'Samhita' implies a collection or group of. It was first studied by Shakala (mentioned also as Shakalya) and further by Baskala and four other (rshis).<ref name=":1">Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) ''Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 94 to 127)</ref><blockquote>ऋचां समूह ऋग्वेदस्तमभ्यस्य प्रयत्नतः। पठितः शाकलेनादौ चतुर्मिस्तदनन्तरम्।। (Rk. Pratisakhya)</blockquote>All the aspects about rigveda vargeekarana, the shakas involved and extant texts, the arrangement of the mandalas and ashtakas are given in the article [[Veda Vargeekarana (वेदवर्गीकरणम्)|Veda Vargeekarana]].
== ऋचां क्रमविन्यासः ॥ Arrangement of Rks (Mantras) ==
== ऋचां क्रमविन्यासः ॥ Arrangement of Rks (Mantras) ==
In some texts, the valakhilya mantras, 80 of them at the end of the eighth mandala, are not taken into account along with the Rgveda mantras. Hence, after including the dvipada mantras and valakhilya mantras the total number of richa-s are given as 10552 in Katyayana's Rik-sarvanukramani text.<ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref>
In some texts, the valakhilya mantras, 80 of them at the end of the eighth mandala, are not taken into account along with the Rgveda mantras. Hence, after including the dvipada mantras and valakhilya mantras the total number of richa-s are given as 10552 in Katyayana's Rik-sarvanukramani text.<ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref>
Each mantra of the Rgveda is associated with a Rshi, a Chandas, and a Devata.<blockquote>अथ ऋषयः ॥१॥ यस्य वाक्यं स ऋषिः ॥४॥ या तेनोच्यते सा देवता ॥५॥ यदक्षरपरिमाणं तच्छंदः ॥६॥ तिस्त्र एव देवता: क्षित्यंतरिक्षद्युस्थाना, अग्निर्वायुः सूर्य इति ॥८॥ (Rig. Ved. Katy. Sarv. 2.3)<ref>''Rgveda Samhita, Katyayana Sarvanukramanika'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 809)</ref></blockquote>Mantras were revealed by mantra-drstha rshis. The subject matter of a mantra is the devata. The number of aksharas (syllables) is given by the chandas. It has a definite number of syllables. There are three types of devatas belonging to kshiti, antariksha, dyu places of Agni, Vayu and Surya respectively.
Each mantra of the Rgveda is associated with a Rshi, a Chandas, and a Devata.<blockquote>अथ ऋषयः ॥१॥ यस्य वाक्यं स ऋषिः ॥४॥ या तेनोच्यते सा देवता ॥५॥ यदक्षरपरिमाणं तच्छंदः ॥६॥ तिस्त्र एव देवता: क्षित्यंतरिक्षद्युस्थाना, अग्निर्वायुः सूर्य इति ॥८॥ (Rig. Ved. Katy. Sarv. 2.3)<ref>''Rgveda Samhita, Katyayana Sarvanukramanika'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 809)</ref></blockquote>Mantras were revealed by mantra-drstha rshis. The subject matter of a mantra is the devata. The number of aksharas (syllables) in a mantra is given by the chandas. It has a definite number of syllables. There are three types of devatas belonging to kshiti (earth), antariksha, and dyu places of Agni, Vayu and Surya respectively. The list of rshis who revealed the mantras are given below in the Mandala krama table. Apart from them twenty-four mantra-drashta rshikas are also mentioned in the Rgveda. <blockquote>गोधा धोषा विश्ववाराऽपालोपनिषन्निषत् ॥ ब्रह्मजाया जुहूर्नामागस्त्यस्य स्वसादितिः ॥ इद्राणी चंद्रमाता च सरमा रोमशोर्वशी ॥ लोपामुद्रा च नद्यश्च यमी नारी च शश्वती। श्रीर्लाक्षा सार्पराज्ञी वाक् श्रद्धा मेधा च दक्षिणा ॥ रात्री सूर्या च सावित्री ब्रह्मवादिभ्य ईरिताः॥ (Rig. Ved. Shau. Anuk)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Godha (गोधा), Ghosha (धोषा), Vishvavaara (विश्ववारा), Apaala (अपाला), Juhu (जुहू), Agastyasvasaa (अगस्त्यस्वसा), Aditi (अदिति), Indrani (इद्राणी), Sarama (सरमा), Romashaa (रोमशा), Urvashi (ऊर्वशी), Lopamudra (लोपामुद्रा), Nadi (नदी), Yami (यमी), Shashvati (शश्वती), Saarparaajni (सार्पराज्ञी), Vaak (वाक्), Shraddha (श्रद्धा), Dakshina (दक्षिणा), Savitri (सावित्री) are the brahmavadinis who contributed towards the mantras of the Rigveda.
The list of rshis who revealed the mantras are given below in the Mandala krama table. Apart from them twenty-four mantra-drashta rshikas are also mentioned in the Rgveda. <blockquote>गोधा धोषा विश्ववाराऽपालोपनिषन्निषत् ॥ ब्रह्मजाया जुहूर्नामागस्त्यस्य स्वसादितिः ॥ इद्राणी चंद्रमाता च सरमा रोमशोर्वशी ॥ लोपामुद्रा च नद्यश्च यमी नारी च शश्वती। श्रीर्लाक्षा सार्पराज्ञी वाक् श्रद्धा मेधा च दक्षिणा ॥ रात्री सूर्या च सावित्री ब्रह्मवादिभ्य ईरिताः॥ (Rig. Ved. Shau. Anuk)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Godha (गोधा), Ghosha (धोषा), Vishvavaara (विश्ववारा), Apaala (अपाला), Juhu (जुहू), Agastyasvasaa (अगस्त्यस्वसा), Aditi (अदिति), Indrani (इद्राणी), Sarama (सरमा), Romashaa (रोमशा), Urvashi (ऊर्वशी), Lopamudra (लोपामुद्रा), Nadi (नदी), Yami (यमी), Shashvati (शश्वती), Saarparaajni (सार्पराज्ञी), Vaak (वाक्), Shraddha (श्रद्धा), Dakshina (दक्षिणा), Savitri (सावित्री)
=== Chandas ===
=== Chandas ===
As mentioned in the previous sections, Rks are those mantras which are set in a shloka format (Padyatmaka) having a definite number of syllables in each pada of the mantra. Thus, they are said to be bound by the rules of Chandas. In the Rgveda although 20 different metres have been used, seven of them were used extensively. They are
As mentioned in the previous sections, Rks are those mantras which are set in a shloka format (Padyatmaka) having a definite number of syllables in each pada of the mantra. Thus, they are said to be bound by the rules of Chandas. In the Rgveda although 20 different metres have been used, seven of them were used extensively. They are Gayatri (24 aksharas) Ushnik (28 aksharas) Anushtup (32 aksharas) Brhati (36 aksharas) Pankti (40 aksharas) Trishtup (44 aksharas) and Jagati (48 aksharas).
Gayatri (24 aksharas)
Ushnik (28 aksharas)
Anushtup (32 aksharas)
Brhati (36 aksharas)
Pankti (40 aksharas)
Trishtup (44 aksharas)
Jagati (48 aksharas)
Of these chandas, four of them have been used in a large number of mantras. They are Gayatri, Anushtup, Trishtup and Jagati and are used in about 80% of the mantras. The other metres apart from these seven, include Atijagati (52 aksharas), Shakvari (56 aksharas) etc.
Of these kinds of chandas, four of them have been used in a large number of mantras. They are Gayatri, Anushtup, Trishtup and Jagati used in about 80% of the mantras. The other metres apart from these seven, include Atijagati (52 aksharas), Shakvari (56 aksharas) etc.
=== मण्डलक्रमः ॥ Mandala krama ===
=== मण्डलक्रमः ॥ Mandala krama ===
The Rgveda samhita has 10552 mantras, grouped into 1017 suktas collected in ten mandalas of unequal length given by various rshis.<ref name=":2" /> In the Mandala krama it is arranged into 10 mandalas, 1017 suktas and 10552<ref name=":2" /> or 10580 (as given in Shaunaka's Anuvakaanukramani) mantras, and 153826 words<ref name=":5">''Rgveda Samhita, Shaunaka Anukramanika'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 828)</ref>.<blockquote>ऋचां दश सहस्राणि ऋचां पञ्च शतानि च । ऋचामशीतिः पादश्च पारणं संप्रकीर्तितम् ॥ (अनुवाकानुक्रमणी, 43)</blockquote>Each sukta in a mandala is a collection of mantras. The number of mantras in a sukta are highly variable. Given below are the mandalas, suktas, the number of mantras and the mantra-drashta rshis therein.<ref name=":0">''Rgveda Samhita'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 767)</ref><ref name=":6">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 44-47)</ref>
The Rgveda samhita has 10552 mantras, grouped into 1017 suktas collected in ten mandalas of unequal length given by various rshis.<ref name=":2" /> In the Mandala krama it is arranged into 10 mandalas, 1017 suktas and 10552<ref name=":2" /> or 10580 (as given in Shaunaka's Anuvakaanukramani) mantras, and 153826 words<ref name=":5">''Rgveda Samhita, Shaunaka Anukramanika'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 828)</ref>.<blockquote>ऋचां दश सहस्राणि ऋचां पञ्च शतानि च । ऋचामशीतिः पादश्च पारणं संप्रकीर्तितम् ॥ (अनुवाकानुक्रमणी, 43)</blockquote>Each sukta in a mandala is a collection of mantras. The number of mantras in a sukta are highly variable. Given below are the mandalas, suktas, the number of mantras and the mantra-drashta rshis therein.<ref name=":0">''Rgveda Samhita'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 767)</ref><ref name=":6">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 44-47)</ref>
==== Shakalya (शाकल्यः) ====
==== Shakalya (शाकल्यः) ====
Padapatha of Rgveda samhita was given by Shakalya (शाकल्यः). In the Brhdaranyaka Upanishad (Adhyaya 4) we find a debate between Shakalya and Yajnavalkya in Janaka's sabha. According to the Puranic evidences, it was this same Shakalya who composed the Rgveda Padapatha. In the Brahmanda Purana we find the following<blockquote>शाकल्यः प्रथमस्तेषां तस्मादन्यो रथीतरः ।। बाष्कलिश्च भरद्वाज इति शाखाप्रवर्त्तकाः ।। ३४.३२ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>देवमित्रस्तु शाकल्यो ज्ञानाहंकारगर्वितः ।। जनकस्य स यज्ञे वै विनाशामगमद्द्विजाः ।। ३४.३३ ।। (Brahmanda. Pura. Purv. 2.34.32-33)<ref>Brahmanda Purana (Purvabhaga, Pada 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4% Adhyaya 34])</ref></blockquote>Reference to Shakalya has also been found in Nirukta and Rk-Pratisakhya. It has been shown that Shakalya's padapatha has not been accepted by Yaska in his Nirukta. For example in Nirukta (5.21) "अरुणो मासकृद् वृकः" has been mentioned. Yaska interpreted मासकृत् as one word in the sense of "मासो का कर्ता" or one who makes a month. Shakalya considered it as two padas or words as मा and सकृत्. Thus we see how Yaska and Shakalya differed in their interpretations.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1958) ''Vaidik Sahitya for M.A. Students''. Kashi: Sharada Mandir. (Pages 41-42)</ref>
Padapatha of Rgveda samhita was given by Shakalya (शाकल्यः). In the Brhdaranyaka Upanishad (Adhyaya 4) we find a debate between Shakalya and Yajnavalkya in Janaka's sabha. According to the Puranic evidences, it was this same Shakalya who composed the Rgveda Padapatha. In the Brahmanda Purana we find the following<blockquote>शाकल्यः प्रथमस्तेषां तस्मादन्यो रथीतरः ।। बाष्कलिश्च भरद्वाज इति शाखाप्रवर्त्तकाः ।। ३४.३२ ।।
देवमित्रस्तु शाकल्यो ज्ञानाहंकारगर्वितः ।। जनकस्य स यज्ञे वै विनाशामगमद्द्विजाः ।। ३४.३३ ।। (Brahmanda. Pura. Purv. 2.34.32-33)<ref>Brahmanda Purana (Purvabhaga, Pada 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4% Adhyaya 34])</ref></blockquote>Reference to Shakalya has also been found in Nirukta and Rk-Pratisakhya. It has been shown that Shakalya's padapatha has not been accepted by Yaska in his Nirukta. For example in Nirukta (5.21) "अरुणो मासकृद् वृकः" has been mentioned. Yaska interpreted मासकृत् as one word in the sense of "मासो का कर्ता" or one who makes a month. Shakalya considered it as two padas or words as मा and सकृत्. Thus we see how Yaska and Shakalya differed in their interpretations.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1958) ''Vaidik Sahitya for M.A. Students''. Kashi: Sharada Mandir. (Pages 41-42)</ref>
== विषयविवेचन ॥ Contents of Rgveda ==
== विषयविवेचन ॥ Contents of Rgveda ==
=== चतुःसमुद्राः ॥ Four seas ===
=== चतुःसमुद्राः ॥ Four seas ===
It is known that the present peninsular Indian subcontinent is surrounded by three seas (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and the Arabian sea in the present terms). It is important to note that Rgvedic texts mention about the presence of a fourth sea in the northern region of India below the Himalayas.<blockquote>रायः समुद्राँश्चतुरोऽस्मभ्यं सोम विश्वत: । आ पवस्व सहस्रिण: ॥६॥ (Rg. Veda 9.33.6)</blockquote><blockquote>स्वायुधं स्ववसं सुनीथं । चतुःसमुद्रं धरुणं रयीणाम् ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.47.2)</blockquote>Of these four seas, two of them the Rgveda (10.136.5) mentions about 'पूर्व (purva)' and 'अपर (apara)' samudras. The Purva (or अवर-Avara) samudra also called as Arvavat (अर्वावत्) is where the sunrises and the Apara (or पर - Para) samudra also called as Paraavat (परावत्) is where the sun sets. The Arabian sea is the Paraavat sea where the Sindhu and its tributaries drain into. However, scholars opine that the Purva (Apara or Arvaavat) sea is not the same as the Bay of Bengal as this bay is very far from where the Saptasindhu rivers were flowing. It has been proposed that land areas that are now known to be Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, i.e., the gangetic plains were we find the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, were once areas of a sea (in the Pleistocene era) which got filled with the sands brought down by the rivers and became plains. The third sea, is discussed separately under the heading of Sarasvati river. <ref name=":4" />
It is known that the present peninsular Indian subcontinent is surrounded by three seas (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and the Arabian sea in the present terms). In many mantras of Rgveda there is a mention about "'''two seas (उभी समुद्रौ)'''" namely the 'पूर्व (purva)' which refers to the Bay of Bengal and 'पर (para)' samudra refers to Arabian sea (Rigveda 10.136.5). It is important to note that Rgvedic texts mention about the presence of a fourth sea in the northern region of India below the Himalayas.<blockquote>रायः समुद्राँश्चतुरोऽस्मभ्यं सोम विश्वत: । आ पवस्व सहस्रिण: ॥६॥ (Rg. Veda 9.33.6)
स्वायुधं स्ववसं सुनीथं । चतुःसमुद्रं धरुणं रयीणाम् ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.47.2)</blockquote>Of these four seas, two of them the Rgveda (10.136.5) mentions about 'पूर्व (purva)' and 'अपर (apara)' samudras. The Purva (or अवर-Avara) samudra also called as Arvavat (अर्वावत्) is where the sunrises and the Apara (or पर - Para) samudra also called as Paraavat (परावत्) is where the sun sets. The Arabian sea is the Paraavat sea where the Sindhu and its tributaries drain into. However, scholars opine that the Purva (Apara or Arvaavat) sea is not the same as the Bay of Bengal as this bay is very far from where the Saptasindhu rivers were flowing. It has been proposed that land areas that are now known to be Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, i.e., the gangetic plains were we find the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, were once areas of a sea (in the Pleistocene era) which got filled with the sands brought down by the rivers and became plains.<ref name=":4" /> The third sea, is discussed separately under the Sarasvati river given in the [[Rivers in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्)|rivers in rigveda]].<ref name=":02">S. K. Acharya, Kunal Gosh, and Amal Kar (2020) ''Saraswati: The River par Excellence.'' Kolkata: The Asiatic Society (Pages 217-234)</ref>
==== Geology ====
=== Astronomical aspects ===
In the Aitareya Brahmana (3.44) we find the concept that Sun (Surya) never raises or sets but it only flips at the end of daylight and returns with the bright side up on the next day. On reaching the end of the day, the sun flips such that the dark night side faces us. This concept was agreeable in the Rgveda suktas also (1.115.4 and 5.81.4). And that the earth was circular like a discus was known to the people in those times.<ref name=":1" />
=== Geology ===
According to Dr. Kapil Dev Dwivedi<ref name=":3">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 283-294)</ref> many geological aspects are revealed in the study of Rgveda. It was long known to ancient people that the '''earth has 7 strata''' (Rgveda 1.22.16), and that the movements within both the earth and in the paramanus (atoma) are regulated by Vishnu.
According to Dr. Kapil Dev Dwivedi<ref name=":3">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 283-294)</ref> many geological aspects are revealed in the study of Rgveda. It was long known to ancient people that the '''earth has 7 strata''' (Rgveda 1.22.16), and that the movements within both the earth and in the paramanus (atoma) are regulated by Vishnu.
Rgveda (10.1.6) states that the '''core of the earth is filled with Agni''' covered by a brilliant cloak. <blockquote>स तु वस्राण्यध पेशनानि वसानो अग्निर्नाभा पृथिव्याः ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.1.6)</blockquote>The concept of fire and its tejas (तेजोमय वस्त्र) the brilliant cloak or garment is expressed in many mantras. Yajurveda also states that prthvi or earth is the center (yoni) of agni and it is due to this central Agni that causes the movement of the earth. Atharvaveda states that Agni is present in the Earth, अग्निवासाः पृथ्विवी (Atha. Veda. 12.1.21) and hence prthvi is called Agnivaasas (अग्निवासस्).
Rgveda (10.1.6) states that the '''core of the earth is filled with Agni''' covered by a brilliant cloak. <blockquote>स तु वस्राण्यध पेशनानि वसानो अग्निर्नाभा पृथिव्याः ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.1.6)</blockquote>The concept of fire and its tejas (तेजोमय वस्त्र) the brilliant cloak or garment is expressed in many mantras. Yajurveda also states that prthvi or earth is the center (yoni) of agni and it is due to this central Agni that causes the movement of the earth. Atharvaveda states that Agni is present in the Earth, अग्निवासाः पृथ्विवी (Atha. Veda. 12.1.21) and hence prthvi is called Agnivaasas (अग्निवासस्). That the '''rivers and ocean waters contain Agni''' is also expressed in the Rgveda. Agni is present in all living beings and the same is said to spread into the waters of rivers and oceans. <blockquote>यो अग्निः सप्तमानुषाः श्रितो विश्वेषु सिन्धुषु ॥ (Rg. Veda. 8.39.8)</blockquote>In the above mantra Sindu (सिन्धु) indicates both the rivers and oceans. It is said that Agni exists in the waters and it is well known that by the '''churning of the river water electricity is generated'''.
Rgveda clearly mentions the '''presence of Ratnas (gems) and treasures''' of gold etc which are the cause of prosperity, in the earth. <blockquote>रियं त इन्द्र पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.55.22)
पुरू वसूनि पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.51.5)</blockquote>
=== Geographical Features ===
The geographical information in the Rigveda, to put it in a nutshell, more or less pertains to the area in the northern belt from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the east to Afghanistan in the west, the easternmost river mentioned in the text being the Ganga, and the westernmost being the western tributaries of the Indus rivers.<ref>Talageri. Shrikant. G, (2000) The Rigveda - A Historical Analysis (Pages </ref>
==== Mountains ====
==== Mountains ====
* Presence of '''Natural Gases in oceans''' is discussed in Rigveda (Rgveda 8.102.4)<ref name=":3" /> It is termed as पुरीष्य अग्निः। This is so called because it has the ability to light up and spreads across in various places of the ocean bed.
* Presence of '''Natural Gases in oceans''' is discussed in Rigveda (Rgveda 8.102.4)<ref name=":3" /> It is termed as पुरीष्य अग्निः। This is so called because it has the ability to light up and spreads across in various places of the ocean bed.
* '''Medicinal substances and food items''' from the oceans, rivers and mountains is well explained in this Veda (Rgveda 8.20.25).<ref name=":3" />
* '''Medicinal substances and food items''' from the oceans, rivers and mountains is well explained in this Veda (Rgveda 8.20.25).<ref name=":3" />
* There are at least '''nineteen rivers''' mentioned in the Rg veda, with the Sarasvati and Indus rivers (along with it's tributaries) gaining a lot of attention. [[Rivers in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्)]] drew a great attention in the past few centuries with the [[Sarasvati (सरस्वती)]], though long lost, has occupied the media but generally for the wrong reasons. Dr. Michel Danino diligently summed up the issues and debates associated with Sarasvati backed with the latest research and archeological evidences.
* There are at least '''nineteen rivers''' mentioned in the Rg veda, with the Sarasvati and Indus rivers (along with it's tributaries) gaining a lot of attention. [[Rivers in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्)]] drew a great attention in the past few centuries with the Sarasvati (सरस्वती), though long lost, has occupied the media but generally for the wrong reasons. Dr. Michel Danino diligently summed up the issues and debates associated with Sarasvati backed with the latest research and archeological evidences.<ref name=":02" />
==== Nature in Rgveda ====
==== Nature in Rgveda ====
The interaction with nature resulted in appreciation and prayer but, indeed, after a good deal of observation. Attributes assigned to deities fit in their natural forms and activities, as Soma is green, fire is bright, air is fast moving and sun is dispenser of darkness. The characteristics of these forces described in the mantras prove that Vedic seers were masters of natural science. All powers, aspects or activities of nature are generally regarded as deities because they are helpful, beneficial and essential for our life. Rivers, mountains, earth, air, water, plants, trees, forest, fire, rain, cloud, Sun, Moon etc, all are deities in Vedic mythology. In Rigveda the names of major deities are, such as Agni, Indra, Vayu, Earth, Soma, Varuna, Vishnu, Aditya, Usha, Aditi, Parjanya, etc. They are indeed the natural instruments of wealth - the inner earth crust, Surya and the other grahas, medicinal plants, oceans and rivers, water bodies such as waterfalls and forests.<blockquote>इन्द्राय द्याव ओषधीरुतापो रियं रक्षन्ति जीरयो वनानि ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.51.5)</blockquote>
The interaction with nature resulted in appreciation and prayer but, indeed, after a good deal of observation. Attributes assigned to deities fit in their natural forms and activities, as Soma is green, fire is bright, air is fast moving and sun is dispenser of darkness. The characteristics of these forces described in the mantras prove that Vedic seers were masters of natural science. All powers, aspects or activities of nature are generally regarded as deities because they are helpful, beneficial and essential for our life. Rivers, mountains, earth, air, water, plants, trees, forest, fire, rain, cloud, Sun, Moon etc, all are deities in Vedic mythology. In Rigveda the names of major deities are, such as Agni, Indra, Vayu, Earth, Soma, Varuna, Vishnu, Aditya, Usha, Aditi, Parjanya, etc. They are indeed the natural instruments of wealth - the inner earth crust, Surya and the other grahas, medicinal plants, oceans and rivers, water bodies such as waterfalls and forests.<blockquote>इन्द्राय द्याव ओषधीरुतापो रियं रक्षन्ति जीरयो वनानि ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.51.5)</blockquote>
=== Darshanika Tattva ===
In the 10th mandala of Rgveda we find many suktas portraying darshanika aspects of Indian tattvajnana. In fact they are seen as the precursor to the siddhantas laid out in the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]]. The darshanika aspect, according to some scholars, also supports the fact that the 10th mandala is a more recent addition to the Rgveda as it is very contrary to the stuti-presentation given in the rest of the mandalas. The two most important references are the [[Nasadiya Sukta (नासदीयसूक्तम्)|Nasadiya Sukta]] and [[Purusha Sukta]]. Purusha sukta propounds Sarveshvara-vada (the all-pervading characteristic) which is considered as a modern thought process, a concept which discusses an all-permeating image or form (Saakara, aakruti) of the Supreme Self in the universe. According to some western scholars, spiritual development has the following course - Bahudevata-vada, Ekadevata-vada and Sarveshvara-vada. The oldest times witness worship of many deities, which later led to worship of one deity (Prajapati or Hiranyagarbha). This further led to development of faith in all-pervading deity, a more recent concept.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>अयँ लोक ऋग्वेदः। (Shad. Brah. 1.5)<ref>Shadvimsha Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>According to Shadvimsha Brahmana, Rgveda is said to be the bhuloka and Agni is the important devata. In the same Brahmana, Yajurveda is said to have Vayu as the important devata (of the Antariksha loka) while Surya is the important deity of Samaveda (of Dyuloka).<ref name=":6" /> Manusmrti reinforces that <blockquote>अग्निवायुरविभ्यस्तु त्र्यं ब्रह्म सनातनम। दुदोह यज्ञसिध्यर्थमृग्यजुः सामलक्षणम्॥ (Manu. Smrt. 1.13)<ref>Manu Smriti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>From Agni, Vayu and Surya, was milked the eternal Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda respectively for the performance of yajnas.
In the 10th mandala of Rgveda we find many suktas portraying darshanika aspects of Indian tattvajnana. In fact they are seen as the precursor to the siddhantas laid out in the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]]. The darshanika aspect, according to some scholars, also supports the fact that the 10th mandala is a more recent addition to the Rgveda as it is very contrary to the stuti-presentation given in the rest of the mandalas. The two most important references are the [[Nasadiya Sukta (नासदीयसूक्तम्)|Nasadiya Sukta]] and [[Purusha Sukta]]. Purusha sukta propounds Sarveshvara-vada (the all-pervading characteristic) which is considered as a modern thought process, a concept which discusses an all-permeating image or form (Saakara, aakruti) of the Supreme Self in the universe. According to some western scholars, spiritual development has the following course - Bahudevata-vada, Ekadevata-vada and Sarveshvara-vada. The oldest times witness worship of many deities, which later led to worship of one deity (Prajapati or Hiranyagarbha). This further led to development of faith in all-pervading deity, a more recent concept.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>अयँ लोक ऋग्वेदः। (Shad. Brah. 1.5)<ref>Shadvimsha Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>According to Shadvimsha Brahmana, Rgveda is said to be the bhuloka and Agni is the important devata. In the same Brahmana, Yajurveda is said to have Vayu as the important devata (of the Antariksha loka) while Surya is the important deity of Samaveda (of Dyuloka).<ref name=":6" /> Manusmrti reinforces that <blockquote>अग्निवायुरविभ्यस्तु त्र्यं ब्रह्म सनातनम। दुदोह यज्ञसिध्यर्थमृग्यजुः सामलक्षणम्॥ (Manu. Smrt. 1.13)<ref>Manu Smriti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>From Agni, Vayu and Surya, was milked the eternal Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda respectively for the performance of yajnas. Rgveda involves the Vaktattva or speech aspects (including knowledge and contemplation), Yajurveda involves Manastattva or psychological aspects (personality, action, nature), and Samaveda includes Pranatattava or energy balance aspects (strength, cooperation). A coordination of the three tattavatas leads a person to attain Brahman. <blockquote>ब्रह्म वा ऋक् । अमृतं वा ऋक् । (Kous. Brah. 7.10)
प्राणो वा ऋक्। (Jaim. Brah. 1.112)</blockquote>Above such references in various brahmanas portray the darshanik aspects (philosophical) of Rgveda. We find information about [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], [[Vak (वाक्)|Vak (Speech)]], Prana (energy), Amruta (eternity), Veerya (propagation) etc. Thus, we find the description about attaining Brahman, the shabda Brahman (vaktattva), Prana or the energy, means to attain Amaratva (eternity), and magnificence by practicing Brahmacharya.<ref name=":6" />
=== Social Aspects ===
Apart from the darshanik aspects, we find new topics many of which are a part of the society, discussed in Mandala 10 of Rgveda.
Apart from the darshanik aspects, we find social topics, many of which are relevant and followed in the present day society.
'''Varna vyavastha''' - the very first reference to the existence of Varna vyavastha in the Indian society has been documented in the Rgveda. The famous Purusha Sukta mantra describes the origin of the four varnas as follows <blockquote>ब्रा॒ह्म॒णो॑ऽस्य॒ मुख॑मासीद्बा॒हू रा॑ज॒न्य॑: कृ॒तः । ऊ॒रू तद॑स्य॒ यद्वैश्य॑: प॒द्भ्यां शू॒द्रो अ॑जायत ॥१२॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.90.12)<ref>Purusha Sukta of Rig Veda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhita-mandal-10-sukta-090/ Mandala 10 Sukta 90])</ref> </blockquote>In Atharvaveda and Yajurveda we find extensive details about the four varnas, specifically in the Yajurveda the activities to be performed by the people belonging to the four varnas are clearly outlined. It may be noted that in vedic literature varnavyavastha was based on "karma", dependent on guna and karma and not on "janma" or by birth. It referred to occupation or activities; anyone choosing the teaching profession was a brahmana and those associated to the army were kshatriyas. By his tapas Vishvamitra came to be called a Brahmarshi and he is one of the vaidik rshis who gave the Rgveda mantras. There was no inferiority or superiority among the people of different varnas and all lived understanding their duties in harmony. There are references to "विप्रराज्य (Viprarajya) or Brahmana rajya and "समर्य राज्य (Samarya Rajya) or Vaishya rajyas. Brahmanas were referred to using the terms Brahman, Vipra, and Devas. Vaishyas were referred to as Vish, Arya, Samarya. Rgveda mentions that Viprarajyas spread in vast areas just like the oceans, where yajnas and other dharmik rituals were paid special attention to. It is also said that the great Samaryarajyas flourished with bountifulness of food and armed-forces. However due to some shortcomings both the administrative models were not popular among the people and were lost in time.<ref name=":7">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 256-270)</ref> <blockquote>अयं .... समुद्र इव पप्रथे। .... शवो यज्ञेषु विप्रराज्ये। (Rig. Veda. 7.3.4)
अनु .... मदामसि, महे समर्यराज्ये । (Rig. Veda. 9.110.2) </blockquote>Shudras were not reated with disrespect or looked down up in Vedic times. They were allowed to read Vedas as mentioned in the Yajurveda. They were given the position of Rajakrt (one who works for the Rajas) and included the Rathakaaras (chariot makers), Karmars (artisans), Suta (chariot riders) were all Shudras. They are also given such positions for effective administration.<ref name=":7" />
'''Ashrama-vyavastha''' - Ashrama vyavastha has been mentioned in the Rgveda.
== Pravachanakaras of Rgveda ==
== Pravachanakaras of Rgveda ==
* those commentators whose commentaries are now available in full in published form; '''Sayanacharya''' (1316-1388) alone can be cited as an example in this category. His commentary on Rgveda is called Vedarthaprakasa.
* those commentators whose commentaries are now available in full in published form; '''Sayanacharya''' (1316-1388) alone can be cited as an example in this category. His commentary on Rgveda is called Vedarthaprakasa.
* those commentators who can be reasonably presumed to have written commentaries on the entire Rgveda but only some portions of whose commentaries have become available so far; '''Skandaswamin''' (around 600 AD). He named his commentary as Rgarthaagamasamhrti. '''Venkatamadhava''' (1100 AD) composed Rgarthadipika. According to Venkatamadhava Skandaswamin, Narayana and Udgitha together composed the Rgbhashya respectively, i.e., the first part was by Skandaswamin, the middle part by Narayana and the ending was given by Udgitha.<ref name=":2" />
* those commentators who can be reasonably presumed to have written commentaries on the entire Rgveda but only some portions of whose commentaries have become available so far; '''Skandaswamin''' (around 600 AD). He named his commentary as Rgarthaagamasamhrti. '''Venkatamadhava''' (1100 AD) composed Rgarthadipika. According to Venkatamadhava Skandaswamin, Narayana and Udgitha together composed the Rgbhashya respectively, i.e., the first part was by Skandaswamin, the middle part by Narayana and the ending was given by Udgitha.<ref name=":2" />
* स्कन्दस्वामी नारायण उद्गीथ इति ते क्रमात् । चक्रुः सहैकमृग्भाष्यं पदवाक्यार्थगोचरम् ।।
* those persons who are known to have written commentaries only on certain specific mantras of the Rgveda; commentators. '''Haradatta''' (9th century A.D.) wrote the commentary called Asvalayana-mantra-patha-bhashya. '''Anandatirtha (Madhavaacharya)''' has written a commentary on Rgveda1.1-40 (except 1.34.7-12). '''Atmananda''' (around 13th Century) has commented on only one sukta namely 1.164. '''Dinakara Bhatta''' in his Rgarthasara has given his commentary on 207 mantras of the Rgveda.
* those persons who are known to have written commentaries only on certain specific mantras of the Rgveda; commentators. '''Haradatta''' (9th century A.D.) wrote the commentary called Asvalayana-mantra-patha-bhashya. '''Anandatirtha (Madhavaacharya)''' has written a commentary on Rgveda1.1-40 (except 1.34.7-12). '''Atmananda''' (around 13th Century) has commented on only one sukta namely 1.164. '''Dinakara Bhatta''' in his Rgarthasara has given his commentary on 207 mantras of the Rgveda.
* those persons who are directly or indirectly referred to in literature as commentators of the Rgveda but no portions of whose commentaries have become available so far; '''Narayana and Udgitha'''
* those persons who are directly or indirectly referred to in literature as commentators of the Rgveda but no portions of whose commentaries have become available so far; '''Narayana and Udgitha'''