Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)
It is generally admitted by all the schools of philosophy that prama is the true knowledge and pramaana is the source of such knowledge. However, difference of opinions exist as to the the nature of the truth which each of them claims for its pramaana. The sutras and commentaries which explain the various Pramanas accepted by each of the astika Shad Darshanas are henceforth addressed in this context.
Samkhya (3 Pramanas)
Samkhya and Yoga concept of pramana is different and original from all the other mentioned views.
Yoga (3 Pramanas)
Yoga Darshana accepts 3 Pramanas as given by Patanjali with the explanation given by Vyasa.[1]
प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमाः प्रमाणानि ॥७॥
Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference) and Agama (Verbal testimony) are Pramanas.
Vyasa Bhasya
इन्द्रियप्रणालिकया चित्तस्य बाह्यवस्तूपरागात्तद्विषया सामान्यविशेषात्मनोऽर्थस्य विशेषावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिः प्रत्यक्षं प्रमाणम् । फलमविशिष्टः पौरुषेयश्चित्तवृत्तिबोधः ।
अनुमेयस्य तुल्यजातीयेष्वनुवृत्तो भिन्नजातीयेभ्यो व्यावृत्तः सम्बन्धो यस्तद्विषया सामान्यावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिरनुमानम् । यथा देशान्तरप्राप्तेर्गतिमच्चन्द्रतारकं चैत्रवत्, विन्ध्यश्चाप्राप्तिरगतिः ।
आप्तेन दृष्टोऽनुमितः वा अर्थः परत्र स्वबोधसङ्क्रान्तये शब्देनोपदिश्यते । शब्दात्तदर्थविषया वृत्तिः श्रोतुरागमः । यस्याश्रद्धेयार्थो वक्ता न दृष्टानुमितार्थः स आगमः प्लवते ।
Summarizing the Vyasa Bhashya given above an object naturally has generic (सामान्या) and specific (विशेषः) attributes. The Pratyaksha pramama considers the specific aspect of the object. Chitta when affected by the external object through the path of sense-organs gives rise to a function with the specific attribute of that object. Such a function is called Pratyaksha pramana. The effect of Pratyaksha pramana ultimately is that the Purusha cognises the function of Chitta (चित्तवृत्तिबोधः).[2]
Further Anumana or Inference is explained. There is a certain relationship which is common (अनुवृत्तिः) to all homogenous objects (तुल्यजातीयेषु) and dissociated (व्यावृत्तः) from the heterogenous ones (भिन्नजातीयेषु). Anumana is that function having the above said relationship for its object concerned chiefly with the ascertainment (अवधारणप्रधाना) of its generic attribute. For e.g. a person, say Chaitra, changes his position only through movement. Similarly when we see planets changing their positions we infer that there is movement, just like in Chaitra, which cannot be perceived. On the other hand, Vidhya mountain does not change its position so we infer that there is no movement.
A certain object, having been either perceived or inferred by an authoritative person, is verbally expressed for the sake of transferring that cognition to another person. Vrtti (function of the object) generated by verbal transfer of cognition is Agama for the listener. That Agama given by an untrustworthy person, who has neither seen nor inferred an object fails.
Yoga holds that pramana is the function of chitta. Samkhya considers knowledge as belonging to buddhi only, which though essentially is insentient, acts like a sentient entity when the sentience of Purusha is reflected upon it. Both these systems offer an original definition of pramana as the function of the buddhi or chitta.
Nyaya (4 Pramanas)
According to Nyaya darshana, pramana is the unique operative cause (kaarana) of pramaa or right knowledge. It is the complex of specific conditions or causes (karana), other than the subject and the object, which invariably produces valid knowledge.
प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ।। ३ ।। {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्}
Pramana constitutes
Vaiseshika
Kanda who occupies the first place in traceable history of epistemological tradition states that the general definition of pramana should be based on the principle that the cause of cognition should be free from defects (अदुष्टं विद्या । वैशेषिक-९,२.१२ । adustam vidya (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)
Mimaamsa
Mimamsa sutras firmly affirm that Vedas are the source of Dharma. They con
Pratyaksha Pramana
सत्संप्रयोगे पुरुषस्येन्द्रियाणां बुद्धिजन्म तत्प्रत्यक्षम्...१,१.४ (Mima. Sutr. 1.1.4)[3]
A contact between an object and indriyas generates Knowledge for Purusha and it is called Pratyaksha.[4] Shabda Pramana - Vedas
औत्पत्तिकस् तु शब्दस्यार्थेन संबन्धस् तस्य ज्ञानम् उपदेशोऽव्यतिरेकश् चार्थेऽनुपलब्धे तत्प्रमाणं बादरायणस्यानपेक्षत्वात् -१.१.५[3]
On the other hand, the relation of the word with its meaning is eternal. Consequently Upadesha (injunctions or vedopadesa) is the means of knowing dharma and it is undeviated in regard to objects not perceived by other means of knowledge. It is authoritative specially as it is independent according to Badarayana. Page 23 of Link Shabda Pramana - Smrtis
अपि वा कर्तृसामान्यात् प्रमाणम् अनुमानं स्यात् -१,३.२
But on account of Karta (teacher and preacher of Veda and Smrtis) being the same, inference would be that Smrti is also pramana just like the Vedas. Page 72 of Link
Bhatta Mimamsa, considers prama or true knowledge as the primary and original knowledge (anaadigata). Hence pramaana is that which gives us new knowledge, i.e. a true cognition of objects of which we have no experience in the past. The method of knowledge must be concerned in knowing what has not been previously known. It has no new contents but refers only to the already acquired contents of knowledge. (yathaarthamagrhitagraahitknaanam pranam iti SD pg 45) Thus pramana is that which gives us new knowledge, i.e. a true knowledge of the past (anadhigataarthaabhutarthanischayatmakam pramanam SD pg 123)
See Reference [4] for sloka and translation.
Prabhakara Mimamsikas, define prama or valid knowledge as immediate experience (Anubhuti). It is different from smriti or memory which is the impression of past experiences. (pramanamanubhutihi sa smrteranyaa PP, p.42). Hence according to them the truth of knowledge, praamaanya is guaranteed by its having the characteristic of immediacy.
Advaitha Vedanta
Advaita vedanta also defines pramana as the operative cause (kaarana) of prama or ture knowledge. It defines prama in two ways. First, prama means knowledge that has both the characteristics of novelty and uncontradictoriness. This means that true knowledge is uncontradicted and original, i.e. it gives us new information. Secondly, prama simply means uncontradicted knowledge of objects, excluding or including memory.