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Anumana pramanas - added content
Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाणम्) is the means or chief instrument of knowing valid knowledge (pramaa (प्रमा)). From the questions like who and what created the universe, determining the nature of objects, sprang an urge for investigation into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa). These queries led to investigation into identifying the criterion of what constitutes valid knowledge and the ways by which objects or things can be cognized ultimately theories of cognition have been formulated. Pramana is a subject that arose from the need to recognize valid knowledge and various theories have been proposed to describe the same.<ref name=":0">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy] University of North Bengal</ref>
Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाणम्) is the means or chief instrument of knowing valid knowledge (pramaa (प्रमा)). From the questions like who and what created the universe, determining the nature of objects, sprang an urge for investigation into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa). These queries led to investigation into identifying the criterion of what constitutes valid knowledge and the ways by which objects or things can be cognized ultimately theories of cognition have been formulated. Pramana is a subject that arose from the need to recognize valid knowledge and various theories have been proposed to describe the same.<ref name=":0">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy] University of North Bengal</ref>
== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==
== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==
==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==
==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==
According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ माने) in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्).
According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ माने) in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्). The suffix 'lyut', being in the instrumental case. Pramana means the instrument by which some thing is rightly cognized.
The word Pramana signifies the instrument because (it is derived as) "by this is rightly known" (Pramiyate anena). Loosely the term stands for knowledge as well as for the means of valid knowledge but in Nyaya logic it is generally used in the second sense.<ref name=":1" />
==प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva==
==प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva==
The tattva or the "true nature of", "the real knowledge about", "property really possessed by object", "assured cognition of an object" ; all these indicate an inquiry into the real state of things or objects. Both "Jnana" and "Prama" indicate some kind of knowledge, however
The tattva or the "true nature of", "the real knowledge about", "property really possessed by object", "assured cognition of an object" ; all these indicate an inquiry into the real state of things or objects. Both "Jnana" and "Prama" indicate some kind of knowledge, however
=== प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramanam ===
=== प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramanam ===
Pramana i.e., the instrument of Prama is the most fundamental and unique about the tattva shastras. Nyaya darshana deals extensively about the siddhantas of jnana (theory of Knowledge). The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.<blockquote>प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्थ्थदर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ।... तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य समीहा प्रवृत्तिरित्युच्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>Meaning : The effort of the agent (man) stimulated by the desire to acquire (Ipsa । ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing (जिहासा । Jihasa roga etc) is what is called प्रवृत्तिः (pravrtti । exertion). Two of these together inspire the agent into Prvritti or Action. (Page 20 of Reference <ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref>) <blockquote>अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Summary : The अर्थ (object or thing) cognised by means of Pramana, or the instrument of cognition is of four kinds, viz., Pleasure, Source of Pleasure, Pain, Source of Pain. These objects of cognition, however, are innumerable owing to the fact of the number of living creatures being infinite. (Page 22 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
Pramana i.e., the instrument of Prama is the most fundamental and unique about the tattva shastras. Nyaya darshana deals extensively about the siddhantas of jnana (theory of Knowledge). The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.<blockquote>प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्थ्थदर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ।... तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य समीहा प्रवृत्तिरित्युच्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>Meaning : The effort of the agent (man) stimulated by the desire to acquire (Ipsa । ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing (जिहासा । Jihasa roga etc) is what is called प्रवृत्तिः (pravrtti । exertion). Two of these together inspire the agent into Prvritti or Action. (Page 20 of Reference <ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref>) <blockquote>अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Summary : The अर्थ (object or thing) cognised by means of Pramana, or the instrument of cognition is of four kinds, viz., Pleasure, Source of Pleasure, Pain, Source of Pain. These objects of cognition, however, are innumerable owing to the fact of the number of living creatures being infinite. (Page 22 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
According to another scholar Pramana is defined as प्रकृष्टरूपेण अनुमाति (Page 12 of Reference <ref name=":1" />)<blockquote>''"To know an object correctly is a kind of proper measurement of an object. 'knowing' is metaphorically called 'measuring' through our cognition. As a valid cognition gives us a picture of a particular object, it may be described as 'intellectual measurement'."''</blockquote>
==== Pramana and Pramanabhasa ====
==== Pramana and Pramanabhasa ====
The means of knowledge have reference to an object. Pramiina produces valid knowledge, the object of which exists in the actual world, whereas, Pramanabhasa produces only illusory~·knowledge.<ref name=":1" />
The means of knowledge have reference to an object. Pramiina produces valid knowledge, the object of which exists in the actual world, whereas, Pramanabhasa produces only illusory knowledge.<ref name=":1" />
=== प्रमाता ॥ Pramata ===
=== प्रमाता ॥ Pramata ===
Definition 1 and Example : पूर्ववदिति, यत्र कारणेन कार्य्यमनुमीयते। यथा मेधोन्नत्या भविष्यति वृष्टिरिति ।
Definition 1 and Example : पूर्ववदिति, यत्र कारणेन कार्य्यमनुमीयते। यथा मेधोन्नत्या भविष्यति वृष्टिरिति ।
Purvavat Anumana is that in which the effect is inferred from the cause; e.g. when we see the clouds rising, we infer that there will be rain.
Purvavat Anumana is that in which the effect is inferred from the cause; e.g. when we see the clouds rising, we infer that there will be rain. The cause is 'purva' or prior to the effect ; hence that in which the Anumana is based on the cognition of the cause has been called Purvavat. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
Definition 2 and Example : अथवा पूर्ववदिति, यत्र यथा पूर्व्वं प्रत्यक्षभूतयोरन्यतरदर्शनेन अन्यतरस्य अप्रत्यक्षस्यानुमानम् । यथा धूमेनाग्निरिति । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
Definition 2 and Example : अथवा पूर्ववदिति, यत्र यथा पूर्व्वं प्रत्यक्षभूतयोरन्यतरदर्शनेन अन्यतरस्य अप्रत्यक्षस्यानुमानम् । यथा धूमेनाग्निरिति । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
Purvavat Anumana is that in which out of two things as perceived on some former occasion, the one that is not perceived (at the time of inference) is inferred from the darshana of the other; e.g. when fire is inferred from smoke. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
=== Sheshavat (शेषवत्) ===
=== Sheshavat (शेषवत्) ===
Definition 1 and Example : शेषवत् यत्र कार्य्येण कारणमनुमीयते । पूर्व्वोदकविपरीतमुदकं नद्याः पूर्णत्वमं शीध्रत्वञ्च दृष्ट्वा स्रोतसोऽनुमीयते भूता वृष्टिरिति ।
Definition 1 and Example : शेषवत् यत्र कार्य्येण कारणमनुमीयते । पूर्व्वोदकविपरीतमुदकं नद्याः पूर्णत्वमं शीध्रत्वञ्च दृष्ट्वा स्रोतसोऽनुमीयते भूता वृष्टिरिति ।
Sheshavat Anumana is that in which the cause is inferred from the effect; e.g. when we see that the water of the river is not like what it used to be, and that the stream is fuller and the current swifter, we infer that there has been rain.
Sheshavat Anumana is that in which the cause is inferred from the effect; e.g. when we see that the water of the river is not like what it used to be, and that the stream is fuller and the current swifter, we infer that there has been rain. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
Definition 2 and Example : शेषवन्नाम परिशेषः, स च प्रसक्तप्रतिषेधेऽन्यत्र अप्रसाङ्गाच्छिष्यमाणे सम्प्रत्ययः । यथा सदनित्यमित्येवमादिना द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशोषेण सामान्यविशेषसमवायेभ्यो विभक्तस्य शब्दस्य तस्मिन् द्रव्यकर्मगुणसंशये न द्रव्यमेकद्रव्यत्वात्, न कर्मे शब्दान्तरहेतुत्वात्, यस्तु शिष्यते, सोऽयमिति शब्दस्य गुणत्वप्रतिपत्तिः । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
Definition 2 and Example : शेषवन्नाम परिशेषः, स च प्रसक्तप्रतिषेधेऽन्यत्र अप्रसाङ्गाच्छिष्यमाणे सम्प्रत्ययः । यथा सदनित्यमित्येवमादिना द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशोषेण सामान्यविशेषसमवायेभ्यो विभक्तस्य शब्दस्य तस्मिन् द्रव्यकर्मगुणसंशये न द्रव्यमेकद्रव्यत्वात्, न कर्मे शब्दान्तरहेतुत्वात्, यस्तु शिष्यते, सोऽयमिति शब्दस्य गुणत्वप्रतिपत्तिः । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
The word sheshavat means remainder; with regard to an object there are certain possibilities - and some of these possibilities are eliminated; and there being no other possibilities - when the remaining possibility is cognised in relation to the said object, this cognition is Sheshavat. e.g. in regard to Sound, we find that it is an entity and is transient; and as these two properties (being an entity and being transient) are found to be common to Substances, Qualities and Actions only, their presence in Sound distinguishes it from the remaining categories of Community., Individuality and Inherence (all of which are three entities, but eternal). Now there arises a doubt as to whether Sound is a Substance, a Quality or an Action. This doubt is reasoned (by the process of elimination) in the following manner :
* Sound cannot be a Substance, because it inheres in a single substance (Akasha). No other substance inheres in only one substance as all substances are either not inherent in any substance (atoms) or inherent in more than one substance (a jar).
* Sound is not an Action, because it is the originator of another sound, thus it gives rise to something that is of its own kind which is never the case with any action.
* Sound is thus a Quality arrived at by the process of elimination of the other two.(Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
=== Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्) ===
=== Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्) ===
सामान्यतो दृष्टं व्रज्यापूर्वकम् अन्यत्र दृष्टस्य अन्यत्र दर्शनमिति म तथा चाऽऽदित्यस्य । तस्मादस्त्य प्रत्यक्षाऽप्यादित्यस्य व्रज्येति। (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
सामान्यतो दृष्टं व्रज्यापूर्वकम् अन्यत्र दृष्टस्य अन्यत्र दर्शनमिति म तथा चाऽऽदित्यस्य । तस्मादस्त्य प्रत्यक्षाऽप्यादित्यस्य व्रज्येति। (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
Samanyatodrsta Anumana (is that in which the inference is based on a general observation) e.g. we have observed in all cases that we see a thing in a place different from where we saw it before only when it has moved; from such general observation we infer that the sun must be moving, even though we cannot perceive it.
Samanyatodrsta Anumana (is that in which the inference is based on a general observation) e.g. we have observed in all cases that we see a thing in a place different from where we saw it before only when it has moved; from such general observation we infer that the sun must be moving, even though we cannot perceive it. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
सामान्यतो दृष्टं नाम, यत्राप्रत्यक्षे लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः सम्बन्धे केनचिदर्थेन लिङ्गस्य सामान्यादप्रत्यक्षो लिङ्गी गमयते । यथेच्छादिभिरात्मा । इच्छादयो गुणाः । गुणाश्च द्रव्यसंस्थानाः । तद्यदेषां स्थानं स आत्मेति ।(Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
सामान्यतो दृष्टं नाम, यत्राप्रत्यक्षे लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः सम्बन्धे केनचिदर्थेन लिङ्गस्य सामान्यादप्रत्यक्षो लिङ्गी गमयते । यथेच्छादिभिरात्मा । इच्छादयो गुणाः । गुणाश्च द्रव्यसंस्थानाः । तद्यदेषां स्थानं स आत्मेति ।(Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)
Samanyatodrsta Anumana is that in which, the relation between the Linga and Lingi being imperceptible, the imperceptible Lingi is inferred from the similarity of the Linga to something else. e.g. When the Atma is inferred from Desire. Desire is a Quality and Qualities always inhere in substances. Similarity of Desire to other qualities which inhere in substances, leads to the Anumana that that Substance in which Desire inheres is the Atma. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)
===Shabda Pramana===
===Shabda Pramana===
Shabda literally means verbal knowledge. Shabda pramana is also called as Agama pramana, sastra pramana according to the school of thought. "sabdha vijnanata samyag sannikrsharta anubhavah agamaha" that evidence about objects realized by the power of words and sentences is called Shabhda pramana. This knowledge depends on reliable authority and also on aakaksha, yogyata and aasatti of a sentence. Different sounds such as those arising from musical instruments and bamboos also contribute to the realization of this knowledge. "Agama," literally means "that which has come", contextually it means that evidence which is realized by the process of understanding scriptures from rishis who constitute reliable authority. Agama pramanas are divided in two parts - Apaurusheya and Paurusheya. Vedas, upanishadas, puranas, dharma sastras, and smritis are "apaurusheya,” or of non human origin. The words of rishis and elders constitute "paurusheya pramanas. Basically paurusheya pramanas ultimately do not contradict the Vedas.
Shabda literally means verbal knowledge. Shabda pramana is also called as Agama pramana, sastra pramana according to the school of thought. "sabdha vijnanata samyag sannikrsharta anubhavah agamaha" that evidence about objects realized by the power of words and sentences is called Shabhda pramana. This knowledge depends on reliable authority and also on aakaksha, yogyata and aasatti of a sentence. Different sounds such as those arising from musical instruments and bamboos also contribute to the realization of this knowledge. "Agama," literally means "that which has come", contextually it means that evidence which is realized by the process of understanding scriptures from rishis who constitute reliable authority. Agama pramanas are divided in two parts - Apaurusheya and Paurusheya. Vedas, upanishadas, puranas, dharma sastras, and smritis are "apaurusheya,” or of non human origin. The words of rishis and elders constitute "paurusheya pramanas. Basically paurusheya pramanas ultimately do not contradict the Vedas.