Changes

This writeup has been taken from the paper: Dagar, C., Pandey, A., & Navare, A. (2020). How Yoga-Based Practices Build Altruistic Behavior? Examining the Role of Subjective Vitality, Self-transcendence, and Psychological Capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-16.

This writeup has been taken from the paper: Dagar, C., Pandey, A., & Navare, A. (2020). How Yoga-Based Practices Build Altruistic Behavior? Examining the Role of Subjective Vitality, Self-transcendence, and Psychological Capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-16.

== '''Introduction''' ==

== Introduction ==

Yoga, a contemplative practice originated in ancient India, aims at relieving suffering and promoting wellbeing (Cope, 1999; Feuerstein, 2011). Yoga interventions has the wide ranging beneficial effects of on the physical and psychological health (for review, see Mooventhan, & Nivethitha, 2017, Khalsa, et al., 2016).). Yoga-Based Practices (YBPs) are found effective in  improving ‘negative states’ by alleviating symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, post-traumatic stress disorder, and other psychological problems (Balasubramaniam et al., 2013; Li and Goldsmith, 2012) as well as promote ‘positive states’ such as enhanced well-being, satisfaction with life, and happiness (Woodyard, 2011).

Yoga, a contemplative practice originated in ancient India, aims at relieving suffering and promoting wellbeing (Cope, 1999; Feuerstein, 2011). Yoga interventions has the wide ranging beneficial effects of on the physical and psychological health (for review, see Mooventhan, & Nivethitha, 2017, Khalsa, et al., 2016).). Yoga-Based Practices (YBPs) are found effective in  improving ‘negative states’ by alleviating symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, post-traumatic stress disorder, and other psychological problems (Balasubramaniam et al., 2013; Li and Goldsmith, 2012) as well as promote ‘positive states’ such as enhanced well-being, satisfaction with life, and happiness (Woodyard, 2011).

The rest of the paper is structured as follows. In the next section, we present the theoretical framework and draw hypotheses about the effect of YBPs on subjective vitality and self-transcendence and their impact on psychological capital and altruistic behaviour. Next, we outline the methodology of the three phases of empirical inquiry and then describe the finding. The discussion section analyses the results, explicates the implications for theory and practice, and delineates the agenda for future research.

The rest of the paper is structured as follows. In the next section, we present the theoretical framework and draw hypotheses about the effect of YBPs on subjective vitality and self-transcendence and their impact on psychological capital and altruistic behaviour. Next, we outline the methodology of the three phases of empirical inquiry and then describe the finding. The discussion section analyses the results, explicates the implications for theory and practice, and delineates the agenda for future research.

== '''Theoretical Background: Hypotheses Development''' ==

== Theoretical Background: Hypotheses Development ==

=== '''''Yoga and its Effects''''' ===

=== ''Yoga and its Effects'' ===

Yoga is a mind-body practice aimed at the integration of mind, body, and spirit. Its goals are to cultivate balance, calm, harmony, and awareness. In the classic yoga tradition, the objective of yoga is to transcend the ego-personality (Feuerstein, 2011, pp. 1). Yoga Based Practices include a range of integrative mind-body exercises like Asanas (involving stretching, balance, bodily alignment, and relaxation), Pranayama (breathing practices) and Dhyan (mind stilling and focus). In the present study, we focus specifically on Pranayam (Breathing techniques) and Dhyan (Mind stilling or meditation). These are the most widely prevalent Yoga based practices at present among the beginners of Yoga (Cope, 1999).  

Yoga is a mind-body practice aimed at the integration of mind, body, and spirit. Its goals are to cultivate balance, calm, harmony, and awareness. In the classic yoga tradition, the objective of yoga is to transcend the ego-personality (Feuerstein, 2011, pp. 1). Yoga Based Practices include a range of integrative mind-body exercises like Asanas (involving stretching, balance, bodily alignment, and relaxation), Pranayama (breathing practices) and Dhyan (mind stilling and focus). In the present study, we focus specifically on Pranayam (Breathing techniques) and Dhyan (Mind stilling or meditation). These are the most widely prevalent Yoga based practices at present among the beginners of Yoga (Cope, 1999).  

A special health report by Harvard Medical School (Khalsa and Elson, 2016) summarizes a vast body of research on the physiological impacts of Yoga and their plausible psychological benefits. The report suggests that yoga (1) tamps down stress and related sympathetic activation, (2) increases vagal tone and parasympathetic responses related to calming and resilience and (3) reduces chronic inflammation associated with a range of harmful effects, including the development of heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. Yoga practices including yoga postures (Manjunath and Telles, 2003), yoga breathing (Raghuraj et al., 1998) and meditation (Telles et al., 2013) have been shown to result in a calming and energizing effect by changing the Heart Rate Variability (HRV), an indicator of autonomic balance.  

A special health report by Harvard Medical School (Khalsa and Elson, 2016) summarizes a vast body of research on the physiological impacts of Yoga and their plausible psychological benefits. The report suggests that yoga (1) tamps down stress and related sympathetic activation, (2) increases vagal tone and parasympathetic responses related to calming and resilience and (3) reduces chronic inflammation associated with a range of harmful effects, including the development of heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. Yoga practices including yoga postures (Manjunath and Telles, 2003), yoga breathing (Raghuraj et al., 1998) and meditation (Telles et al., 2013) have been shown to result in a calming and energizing effect by changing the Heart Rate Variability (HRV), an indicator of autonomic balance.  

=== '''''Yoga and Subjective Vitality''''' ===

=== ''Yoga and Subjective Vitality'' ===

Subjective vitality is a self-reported feeling of aliveness and the energy available to the self, and is reflected in the experience of a sense of enthusiasm and activated positive affect. Subjective vitality is positively toned and represent energy that one can harness for purposive actions unlike other forms of activation such as anger, anxiety, or arousal (Ryan and Frederick, 1997; Watson and Tellegen, 1985).

Subjective vitality is a self-reported feeling of aliveness and the energy available to the self, and is reflected in the experience of a sense of enthusiasm and activated positive affect. Subjective vitality is positively toned and represent energy that one can harness for purposive actions unlike other forms of activation such as anger, anxiety, or arousal (Ryan and Frederick, 1997; Watson and Tellegen, 1985).

  '''H1:''' Yoga-based practices have a positive impact on subjective vitality in a healthy adult population.  

  '''H1:''' Yoga-based practices have a positive impact on subjective vitality in a healthy adult population.  

=== '''''Yoga and Self-Transcendence''''' ===

=== ''Yoga and Self-Transcendence'' ===

Self-transcendence (ST) generally refers to the awareness of being an integral part of nature and the universe at large or the experience of cosmic unity (Johnstone et. al. 2016). Self-transcendent is reported to associate with greater awareness of the self and of the environment (Reed, 2008).  

Self-transcendence (ST) generally refers to the awareness of being an integral part of nature and the universe at large or the experience of cosmic unity (Johnstone et. al. 2016). Self-transcendent is reported to associate with greater awareness of the self and of the environment (Reed, 2008).  

  '''H2:''' Yoga-based practices have a positive impact on self-transcendence in a healthy adult population.

  '''H2:''' Yoga-based practices have a positive impact on self-transcendence in a healthy adult population.

=== Subjective Vitality and Psychological Capital ===

=== '''Subjective Vitality and Psychological Capital''' ===

Psychological capital, or ‘PsyCap’, is an individual’s positive psychological state characterized by (1) having confidence (efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks, (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future, (3) persevering towards goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed, and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back (resiliency) to attain success (Luthans, Morgan & Avolio, 2015, pp. 2). Extant literature has attempted to highlight the antecedents and consequences of PsyCap, by specifically focussing on the utility of PsyCap in organizational life (e.g. Luthans, 2007, Bakker, & Schaufeli, , 2008) and personal life (Avey et al., 2010). Avey (2014) investigated three categories of antecedents to PsyCap: demographics (e.g., age, gender, and tenure), individual differences (e.g., self-esteem and proactive personality), and contextual factors (e.g., leadership roles and job design) and found the strongest support for individual differences.

Psychological capital, or ‘PsyCap’, is an individual’s positive psychological state characterized by (1) having confidence (efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks, (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future, (3) persevering towards goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed, and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back (resiliency) to attain success (Luthans, Morgan & Avolio, 2015, pp. 2). Extant literature has attempted to highlight the antecedents and consequences of PsyCap, by specifically focussing on the utility of PsyCap in organizational life (e.g. Luthans, 2007, Bakker, & Schaufeli, , 2008) and personal life (Avey et al., 2010). Avey (2014) investigated three categories of antecedents to PsyCap: demographics (e.g., age, gender, and tenure), individual differences (e.g., self-esteem and proactive personality), and contextual factors (e.g., leadership roles and job design) and found the strongest support for individual differences.

  '''H3:''' Subjective vitality has a positive association with psychological capital in healthy adult participants.

  '''H3:''' Subjective vitality has a positive association with psychological capital in healthy adult participants.

=== '''''Self-Transcendence and Psychological Capital''''' ===

=== ''Self-Transcendence and Psychological Capital'' ===

Self-transcendence encompasses both psychological (relating to others and self) and spiritual (having a sense of meaning, acceptance, and living fully in the present) aspects (Reed, 2009). Self-transcendence is referred to as wisdom in contemplative traditions (Curnow, 1999; Levenson et al., 2005). ST develops through purposive practices such as meditation. The process meditation changes and stabilizes the thought processes and emotions, and helps in lowering anxiety and excitability (Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995). It is likely that self-transcendence has protective mental health effects. Haase et al. (1992, pp. 145) enumerated the outcomes of self-transcendence as a sense of well-being, enhanced feelings of self-worth; a greater sense of connectedness with others, nature, and God; personal growth; finding purpose and meaning in life; and a sense of being healed. Higher levels of self-transcendence have shown a positive association with energy, dedication to, and absorption in work amongst the nurses/nursing population. Self-transcendence is reported to have a negative relation to depression. In the series of studies, Coward (1996, 1998, 2000) reported that Self-transcendence is correlated with hope, emotional well-being, and a sense of coherence in both healthy adults and people with serious illnesses. ST is related to higher psycho-spiritual functioning, and offers potential buffers for an individual’s reactions to stressful life experiences (Haugan, Moksnes, & Løhre, 2016).

Self-transcendence encompasses both psychological (relating to others and self) and spiritual (having a sense of meaning, acceptance, and living fully in the present) aspects (Reed, 2009). Self-transcendence is referred to as wisdom in contemplative traditions (Curnow, 1999; Levenson et al., 2005). ST develops through purposive practices such as meditation. The process meditation changes and stabilizes the thought processes and emotions, and helps in lowering anxiety and excitability (Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995). It is likely that self-transcendence has protective mental health effects. Haase et al. (1992, pp. 145) enumerated the outcomes of self-transcendence as a sense of well-being, enhanced feelings of self-worth; a greater sense of connectedness with others, nature, and God; personal growth; finding purpose and meaning in life; and a sense of being healed. Higher levels of self-transcendence have shown a positive association with energy, dedication to, and absorption in work amongst the nurses/nursing population. Self-transcendence is reported to have a negative relation to depression. In the series of studies, Coward (1996, 1998, 2000) reported that Self-transcendence is correlated with hope, emotional well-being, and a sense of coherence in both healthy adults and people with serious illnesses. ST is related to higher psycho-spiritual functioning, and offers potential buffers for an individual’s reactions to stressful life experiences (Haugan, Moksnes, & Løhre, 2016).

  '''H4:''' Self-transcendence is positively associated with psychological capital.

  '''H4:''' Self-transcendence is positively associated with psychological capital.

=== '''''Psychological Capital and Altruism''''' ===

=== ''Psychological Capital and Altruism'' ===

Psychological capital is a composite construct consisting of four dimensions – confidence (efficacy), hope, optimism, and resilience (Luthan et al., 2004). Scholars have also explored the predictive power of PsyCap (see, for example, Larsen and Luthans, 2006; Avey et al., 2010) with other outcomes. The construct, especially the first three dimensions can be posited to enhance altruistic behaviour in an individual. Altruistic behaviour refers to helping others in accomplishing others’ goals. While there has been no study that attempts to link PsyCap with altruism, we draw upon the literature that connects PsyCap with Organizational Citizenship Behaviours (OCBs) to put forth our arguments (Beal, Stavros, & Cole, 2013). OCBs refer to the prosocial behaviours that promote the good of the organization by exhibiting behaviours such as providing help to colleagues, and helping other employees accomplish their tasks or projects (Organ and Ryan, 1995; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Hui, 1993). Scholars have emphasized the voluntary nature of OCB to distinguish it from performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997). Several studies have demonstrated that higher PsyCap can enhance pro-social behaviour in organizations in the form of OCBs (see, for example, Shahnawaz and Jafri, 2009; Avey, Wernsing & Luthans 2008; Wenyu Su 2004). Extending the argument we posit that:

Psychological capital is a composite construct consisting of four dimensions – confidence (efficacy), hope, optimism, and resilience (Luthan et al., 2004). Scholars have also explored the predictive power of PsyCap (see, for example, Larsen and Luthans, 2006; Avey et al., 2010) with other outcomes. The construct, especially the first three dimensions can be posited to enhance altruistic behaviour in an individual. Altruistic behaviour refers to helping others in accomplishing others’ goals. While there has been no study that attempts to link PsyCap with altruism, we draw upon the literature that connects PsyCap with Organizational Citizenship Behaviours (OCBs) to put forth our arguments (Beal, Stavros, & Cole, 2013). OCBs refer to the prosocial behaviours that promote the good of the organization by exhibiting behaviours such as providing help to colleagues, and helping other employees accomplish their tasks or projects (Organ and Ryan, 1995; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Hui, 1993). Scholars have emphasized the voluntary nature of OCB to distinguish it from performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997). Several studies have demonstrated that higher PsyCap can enhance pro-social behaviour in organizations in the form of OCBs (see, for example, Shahnawaz and Jafri, 2009; Avey, Wernsing & Luthans 2008; Wenyu Su 2004). Extending the argument we posit that:

  '''H5:''' PsyCap has a positive relationship with altruism towards colleagues.

  '''H5:''' PsyCap has a positive relationship with altruism towards colleagues.

=== '''''Self-Transcendence and Altruism''''' ===

=== ''Self-Transcendence and Altruism'' ===

In the tradition of Yoga, ethical conduct is based on the conception of oneness that naturally result in universal love and compassion for all living beings. Self-transcendence is intricately linked to selflessness, dissolution of distinctions between self and other, and are associated with prosociality (Vego and Silbersweig, 2012, Johnston, 2016). Self-transcendence facilitates furthering a cause beyond the self and allowing the practitioner to experience a communion beyond the boundaries of the self. Altruism, defined as general helping behaviour and a general philosophy of helping others, entails communion beyond the boundaries of the self (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Hence, we hypothesize that:

In the tradition of Yoga, ethical conduct is based on the conception of oneness that naturally result in universal love and compassion for all living beings. Self-transcendence is intricately linked to selflessness, dissolution of distinctions between self and other, and are associated with prosociality (Vego and Silbersweig, 2012, Johnston, 2016). Self-transcendence facilitates furthering a cause beyond the self and allowing the practitioner to experience a communion beyond the boundaries of the self. Altruism, defined as general helping behaviour and a general philosophy of helping others, entails communion beyond the boundaries of the self (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). Hence, we hypothesize that:

  '''H6:''' Self-transcendence has a positive association with altruism in healthy adult participants.

  '''H6:''' Self-transcendence has a positive association with altruism in healthy adult participants.

== '''Method''' ==

== Method ==

The research was carried out in three phases. In phase 1, we conducted a cross-sectional survey to test the hypothesis explicating relationships between subjective vitality, self-transcendence, psychological capital, and altruistic behaviour. In phase 2, we conducted an experimental study to examine the impact of YBP on the subjective vitality and self-transcendence towards the end of eight weeks of YBP. In phase 3, we conducted repeated assessment after three months of the intervention.

The research was carried out in three phases. In phase 1, we conducted a cross-sectional survey to test the hypothesis explicating relationships between subjective vitality, self-transcendence, psychological capital, and altruistic behaviour. In phase 2, we conducted an experimental study to examine the impact of YBP on the subjective vitality and self-transcendence towards the end of eight weeks of YBP. In phase 3, we conducted repeated assessment after three months of the intervention.

We followed the recommendations of Podsakoff et al. (2003) of separating antecedents from outcomes in the survey, thus, ensuring anonymity and confidentiality of responses. Of the 320 surveys distributed, 276 (approximately 86%; women:17%, average age: 23.4 years) completed surveys were returned.

We followed the recommendations of Podsakoff et al. (2003) of separating antecedents from outcomes in the survey, thus, ensuring anonymity and confidentiality of responses. Of the 320 surveys distributed, 276 (approximately 86%; women:17%, average age: 23.4 years) completed surveys were returned.

=== '''''Measures''''' ===

=== ''Measures'' ===

All the measures used have been previously validated in published research.  

All the measures used have been previously validated in published research.  

=== '''''Subjective Vitality''''' ===

=== ''Subjective Vitality'' ===

Subjective vitality was measured by using the scale developed by Ryan and Frederick (1997). Sample items were, “I feel alive and vital” and “I nearly always feel awake and alert.” The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.75.

Subjective vitality was measured by using the scale developed by Ryan and Frederick (1997). Sample items were, “I feel alive and vital” and “I nearly always feel awake and alert.” The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.75.

=== '''''Self-Transcendence''''' ===

=== ''Self-Transcendence'' ===

Self-transcendence was measured using the self-transcendence scale developed by Levenson et al. (2005). Sample items were, “I feel that my individual life is a part of a greater whole” and “I feel much more compassionate, even towards my enemies.” The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.77.

Self-transcendence was measured using the self-transcendence scale developed by Levenson et al. (2005). Sample items were, “I feel that my individual life is a part of a greater whole” and “I feel much more compassionate, even towards my enemies.” The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.77.

=== '''''Psychological Capital''''' ===

=== ''Psychological Capital'' ===

Psychological capital was measured using the shorter version (12 items) Psychological Capital Questionnaire developed by Luthans, and Avolio et al. (2007) and Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio (2007). The sample items were, “This person is confident of presenting his information/ work output to a group of colleagues” (efficacy) and “This person always looks on the bright side of things regarding his/her study/career” (Optimism). We adapted the items to focus on the MBA course-related work. The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.84.

Psychological capital was measured using the shorter version (12 items) Psychological Capital Questionnaire developed by Luthans, and Avolio et al. (2007) and Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio (2007). The sample items were, “This person is confident of presenting his information/ work output to a group of colleagues” (efficacy) and “This person always looks on the bright side of things regarding his/her study/career” (Optimism). We adapted the items to focus on the MBA course-related work. The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.84.

=== '''''Altruism''''' ===

=== ''Altruism'' ===

Altruism was measured using the helping behaviour and helping intentions scales of Schwartz et al. (2012). The sample items were, “I try to help others even if they do not help me” and ‘I have allowed someone to go ahead of me in line.” The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.75.

Altruism was measured using the helping behaviour and helping intentions scales of Schwartz et al. (2012). The sample items were, “I try to help others even if they do not help me” and ‘I have allowed someone to go ahead of me in line.” The alpha reliability coefficient was 0.75.

=== '''''Findings of Phase 1:''''' ===

=== ''Findings of Phase 1:'' ===

Following Anderson and Gerbing (1988), we first conducted a confirmatory factor analysis to test the adequacy of the measurement model and, subsequently, examined the structural equation model. We used the SPSS version 21 and AMOS version 21 for the data analysis. To check the robustness of the measurement model, we performed a Confirmatory Factor Analysis of scales. We found that scales of self-transcendence with one factor (CMIN/DF = 1.621, CFI = 0.935, RMSEA = 0.048), psychological capital with four factors of efficiency, hope, resilience and optimism (CMIN/DF = 2.841, CFI = 0.877, RMSEA = 0.08), subjective vitality with one factor (CMIN/DF = 1.539, CFI = 0.992, RMSEA = 0.044), and altruism with two factors of helping orientation and general helping behaviour (CMIN/DF = 1.427, CFI = 0.968, RMSEA = 0.040) were found reliable.

Following Anderson and Gerbing (1988), we first conducted a confirmatory factor analysis to test the adequacy of the measurement model and, subsequently, examined the structural equation model. We used the SPSS version 21 and AMOS version 21 for the data analysis. To check the robustness of the measurement model, we performed a Confirmatory Factor Analysis of scales. We found that scales of self-transcendence with one factor (CMIN/DF = 1.621, CFI = 0.935, RMSEA = 0.048), psychological capital with four factors of efficiency, hope, resilience and optimism (CMIN/DF = 2.841, CFI = 0.877, RMSEA = 0.08), subjective vitality with one factor (CMIN/DF = 1.539, CFI = 0.992, RMSEA = 0.044), and altruism with two factors of helping orientation and general helping behaviour (CMIN/DF = 1.427, CFI = 0.968, RMSEA = 0.040) were found reliable.

To test the significance of indirect effect, we used both the Sobel (1982) and a bias-corrected bootstrapped test with 5000 replications to construct a confidence interval (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). The results confirmed that psychological capital played a mediation role in subjective vitality to altruism (''z'' = 3.442, ''p'' < .001) and self-transcendence to altruism relationship (''z'' = 3.048, ''p'' < .01). Bootstrapping results showed that the indirect effect of subjective vitality on altruism via psychological capital (''β'' = 0.041, bootstrap bias-corrected 95%CI [0.021 - 0.072]), and self-transcendence on altruism via psychological capital (''β'' = 0.065, bootstrap bias-corrected 95% CI [0.026 - 0.117]), was supported.

To test the significance of indirect effect, we used both the Sobel (1982) and a bias-corrected bootstrapped test with 5000 replications to construct a confidence interval (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). The results confirmed that psychological capital played a mediation role in subjective vitality to altruism (''z'' = 3.442, ''p'' < .001) and self-transcendence to altruism relationship (''z'' = 3.048, ''p'' < .01). Bootstrapping results showed that the indirect effect of subjective vitality on altruism via psychological capital (''β'' = 0.041, bootstrap bias-corrected 95%CI [0.021 - 0.072]), and self-transcendence on altruism via psychological capital (''β'' = 0.065, bootstrap bias-corrected 95% CI [0.026 - 0.117]), was supported.

=== '''''Phase 2: Experimental Study: Participants, Procedure and Findings''''' ===

=== ''Phase 2: Experimental Study: Participants, Procedure and Findings'' ===

Phase 2 of the study was designed as randomised controlled longitudinal experiment involving students of the Master of Management (MMgt) enrolled in an eight-week long course on ‘self-management’. Participants (N=109) were MBA students at a top-tier university in India who participated in the study for partial course credit. All participants were enrolled in one of the two sections of a self-management course, both of which were taught on the same days. The sessions of the course were on Time Management, Emotional Intelligence, Personal Vision and Mission, Building and Leading Teams and Creativity and Design Thinking. The conceptual rubric of the course design and discussion was the Panch-Kosh  model, a model of human self that is widely recognized in the Indian society and in the literature on traditional Indian wisdom. The participants in the randomly selected experimental group were given a choice of either participate in Yoga-Based Training or Training in Music (vocal or instrumental) . Participants could make their choice upfront or after attending a 2-hour introductory session of each training. A total of 40 participants attended the two-hour introductory and experiential session on Yoga which covered basic philosophy, approach, and introduction to eight limbs of Yoga. When asked about the reason of their choice, participants shared the following reasons: curiosity for Yoga, particularly after United Nations proclaimed  June 21as the International Day of Yoga, parental influence, some students practiced in their childhood, and the desire to reconnect with Yoga practice. Finally, 56 participants received training on Yoga-Based Training (YBT) as an experimental condition. We used the partial Yoga protocol approach in which participants trained in 30-minute sessions, twice weekly. The participants were encouraged to follow the practices every day in their hostels.  

Phase 2 of the study was designed as randomised controlled longitudinal experiment involving students of the Master of Management (MMgt) enrolled in an eight-week long course on ‘self-management’. Participants (N=109) were MBA students at a top-tier university in India who participated in the study for partial course credit. All participants were enrolled in one of the two sections of a self-management course, both of which were taught on the same days. The sessions of the course were on Time Management, Emotional Intelligence, Personal Vision and Mission, Building and Leading Teams and Creativity and Design Thinking. The conceptual rubric of the course design and discussion was the Panch-Kosh  model, a model of human self that is widely recognized in the Indian society and in the literature on traditional Indian wisdom. The participants in the randomly selected experimental group were given a choice of either participate in Yoga-Based Training or Training in Music (vocal or instrumental) . Participants could make their choice upfront or after attending a 2-hour introductory session of each training. A total of 40 participants attended the two-hour introductory and experiential session on Yoga which covered basic philosophy, approach, and introduction to eight limbs of Yoga. When asked about the reason of their choice, participants shared the following reasons: curiosity for Yoga, particularly after United Nations proclaimed  June 21as the International Day of Yoga, parental influence, some students practiced in their childhood, and the desire to reconnect with Yoga practice. Finally, 56 participants received training on Yoga-Based Training (YBT) as an experimental condition. We used the partial Yoga protocol approach in which participants trained in 30-minute sessions, twice weekly. The participants were encouraged to follow the practices every day in their hostels.  

All the data were collected online after taking due consent from the participants and with ethical clearance following institutional procedure. We followed the recommendation of Podsakoff et al. (2003) of separating antecedents from outcomes in the survey, ensuring the anonymity and confidentiality of responses. Groups of six students each were formed in the beginning of the course. Individual and group assignments formed part of the course. The group assignments were to be submitted by the respective groups. Subjective vitality, self-transcendence, and altruism were measured in the self-report format. Psychological capital was measured in a peer assessed format, i.e., in the groups of six, five participants reported the PsyCap for one participant and this procedure was used for all the six members of all the groups. The average score of the PsyCap questionnaire was taken from five peers for each participant. The measures of the assessment were the same as used in Phase 1 of the study.

All the data were collected online after taking due consent from the participants and with ethical clearance following institutional procedure. We followed the recommendation of Podsakoff et al. (2003) of separating antecedents from outcomes in the survey, ensuring the anonymity and confidentiality of responses. Groups of six students each were formed in the beginning of the course. Individual and group assignments formed part of the course. The group assignments were to be submitted by the respective groups. Subjective vitality, self-transcendence, and altruism were measured in the self-report format. Psychological capital was measured in a peer assessed format, i.e., in the groups of six, five participants reported the PsyCap for one participant and this procedure was used for all the six members of all the groups. The average score of the PsyCap questionnaire was taken from five peers for each participant. The measures of the assessment were the same as used in Phase 1 of the study.

=== '''''Findings in Phase 2''''' ===

=== ''Findings in Phase 2'' ===

A longitudinal experimental design was used to test hypothesis 1 and 2. Data from the experimental study were analyzed with SPSS version 21. One-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the changes in the measures of moral reasoning, mindfulness, compassion, and egocentric bias after the mindfulness intervention. For all analyses, effect size estimates are reported as partial eta squared. The ANOVA results show that the overall model displayed good fit (Pillai Trace: 0.429; Wilk’s Lambda: 0.571; Hotelling’s Trance: 0.751; Roy’s Largest Root: 0.751) with F_{1, 53} = 12.268, ''p'' < 0.001, ''ƞ''_p² = 0.43.  

A longitudinal experimental design was used to test hypothesis 1 and 2. Data from the experimental study were analyzed with SPSS version 21. One-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the changes in the measures of moral reasoning, mindfulness, compassion, and egocentric bias after the mindfulness intervention. For all analyses, effect size estimates are reported as partial eta squared. The ANOVA results show that the overall model displayed good fit (Pillai Trace: 0.429; Wilk’s Lambda: 0.571; Hotelling’s Trance: 0.751; Roy’s Largest Root: 0.751) with F_{1, 53} = 12.268, ''p'' < 0.001, ''ƞ''_p² = 0.43.  

The above mentioned finding about the experimental study substantiates hypotheses 1 and 2 about the impact of YBP on subjective vitality and self-transcendence. We controlled for the cognitive complexity during the study. The cognitive complexity of the participants of both the groups remained unchanged after the end of the eight-week long study.

The above mentioned finding about the experimental study substantiates hypotheses 1 and 2 about the impact of YBP on subjective vitality and self-transcendence. We controlled for the cognitive complexity during the study. The cognitive complexity of the participants of both the groups remained unchanged after the end of the eight-week long study.

=== '''''Phase 3: Longer-term Effects''''' ===

=== ''Phase 3: Longer-term Effects'' ===

We collected data again after the period of 4 months to measure longer-term effect of YBPs. It was found that approximately 75% participants of the experiment group continued to practice Yoga regularly. One-way repeated ANOVA analysis showed significant differences in subjective vitality (F_{1, 53} = 5.280, ''p'' < .05, ''ƞ''_p² = 0.05) and self-transcendence (F_{1, 53} = 4.809, ''p'' < .05, ''ƞ''_p² = 0.06) between the experiment and control group participants. Thus, we found that the effect of YBPs on subjective vitality and self-transcendence was sustained after 4 months. Descriptive statistics of psychological measures is given in Table 4b.

We collected data again after the period of 4 months to measure longer-term effect of YBPs. It was found that approximately 75% participants of the experiment group continued to practice Yoga regularly. One-way repeated ANOVA analysis showed significant differences in subjective vitality (F_{1, 53} = 5.280, ''p'' < .05, ''ƞ''_p² = 0.05) and self-transcendence (F_{1, 53} = 4.809, ''p'' < .05, ''ƞ''_p² = 0.06) between the experiment and control group participants. Thus, we found that the effect of YBPs on subjective vitality and self-transcendence was sustained after 4 months. Descriptive statistics of psychological measures is given in Table 4b.

== '''DISCUSSION''' ==

== Discussion ==

Advances in neuroscience have attempted to explore and have made significant progress in highlighting the neurochemistry, focal areas, and the pathways pathological states such as depression, schizophrenia, obsessive compulsive disorders, and anxiety neurosis. However, the focus on positive states such as well-being, satisfaction, etc., has been historically, and surprisingly, missing (LeDoux & Armony, 1999; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2014). Moving from the unilateral focus on pathology, the scholarship is recognizing the importance of positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014: 5). Gard et. al (2014) call for the Yoga research to elaborate on specific process, tools and outcomes that improve the efficiency and adaptive nature of habitual forms of cognition, emotion, and behavior across systems. They also call for studies that go beyond cross-sectional designs (e.g., novice vs. long-term practitioners) and focus on longitudinal designs with appropriate active control. By examining the positive psychological processes through longitudinal study and active control design our study is a response to their call for yoga research.

Advances in neuroscience have attempted to explore and have made significant progress in highlighting the neurochemistry, focal areas, and the pathways pathological states such as depression, schizophrenia, obsessive compulsive disorders, and anxiety neurosis. However, the focus on positive states such as well-being, satisfaction, etc., has been historically, and surprisingly, missing (LeDoux & Armony, 1999; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2014). Moving from the unilateral focus on pathology, the scholarship is recognizing the importance of positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014: 5). Gard et. al (2014) call for the Yoga research to elaborate on specific process, tools and outcomes that improve the efficiency and adaptive nature of habitual forms of cognition, emotion, and behavior across systems. They also call for studies that go beyond cross-sectional designs (e.g., novice vs. long-term practitioners) and focus on longitudinal designs with appropriate active control. By examining the positive psychological processes through longitudinal study and active control design our study is a response to their call for yoga research.

The findings of the study can be useful to policy makers for incorporating YBPs as a part of educational and competence building programs imparted to the youth.

The findings of the study can be useful to policy makers for incorporating YBPs as a part of educational and competence building programs imparted to the youth.

=== '''''Limitations of the Study and Directions for Future Research''''' ===

=== ''Limitations of the Study and Directions for Future Research'' ===

We present the limitations of the present study, which also indicate the scope for future research. Grant (2007, 2013) has shown that self-transcendence can lead to greater persistence while engaging in repetitive and uninteresting tasks at work. Yeager (2014) extended this by examining situations in which a person was involved in tasks that have no immediate payoff but may prepare one to make a contribution in the future. Yeager (2014) found that a self-transcendent purpose for learning could alter a person’s self-regulation in such circumstances. However, in the present research, we consider self-transcendence as an experiential outcome rather than a conscious cognitive input. Future research studies can examine the differential and synergistic impact of YBPs and self-transcendence on other positive psychological outcomes like positive emotions, engagement, and relationship etc.

We present the limitations of the present study, which also indicate the scope for future research. Grant (2007, 2013) has shown that self-transcendence can lead to greater persistence while engaging in repetitive and uninteresting tasks at work. Yeager (2014) extended this by examining situations in which a person was involved in tasks that have no immediate payoff but may prepare one to make a contribution in the future. Yeager (2014) found that a self-transcendent purpose for learning could alter a person’s self-regulation in such circumstances. However, in the present research, we consider self-transcendence as an experiential outcome rather than a conscious cognitive input. Future research studies can examine the differential and synergistic impact of YBPs and self-transcendence on other positive psychological outcomes like positive emotions, engagement, and relationship etc.

Extant literature links happiness with energy (e.g. Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter, 2003; Peterson, Ruch, Beermann, Park, & Seligman, 2007; Gailliot, 2012) Happiness has been found to predict future success (e.g., in marriage, friendship, wealth, work, and health by Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). Our study demonstrates that YBP can create or sustain the positive energy surplus and be concomitant with happiness. Future research may be aimed at presenting a more nuanced picture of YBPs and happiness and how this association is affected by contextual and agentic factors.

Extant literature links happiness with energy (e.g. Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter, 2003; Peterson, Ruch, Beermann, Park, & Seligman, 2007; Gailliot, 2012) Happiness has been found to predict future success (e.g., in marriage, friendship, wealth, work, and health by Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). Our study demonstrates that YBP can create or sustain the positive energy surplus and be concomitant with happiness. Future research may be aimed at presenting a more nuanced picture of YBPs and happiness and how this association is affected by contextual and agentic factors.

=== '''''Conclusion''''' ===

=== ''Conclusion'' ===

Yoga research has been dominated by research in the medical science domain (Balasubramaniam, 2013). However, there is also a need to reveal the nature and type of impact of Yoga practice from a psychological perspective.  We report a relationship between the YBPs on subjective vitality and self-transcendence in healthy young adult graduate students in management we aimed to address this gap with our study. Further, we demonstrate that high levels of subjective vitality and self-transcendence may enhance the psychological capital which, in turn, results in higher altruism. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to explore the mechanism of the effect of YBPs on positive psychological states and behaviour. The study, thus, contributes to the theory by exploring linkages between the literatures on YBPs and positive psychology. Moreover, the findings have significant implications for personal well-being and leadership development.

Yoga research has been dominated by research in the medical science domain (Balasubramaniam, 2013). However, there is also a need to reveal the nature and type of impact of Yoga practice from a psychological perspective.  We report a relationship between the YBPs on subjective vitality and self-transcendence in healthy young adult graduate students in management we aimed to address this gap with our study. Further, we demonstrate that high levels of subjective vitality and self-transcendence may enhance the psychological capital which, in turn, results in higher altruism. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to explore the mechanism of the effect of YBPs on positive psychological states and behaviour. The study, thus, contributes to the theory by exploring linkages between the literatures on YBPs and positive psychology. Moreover, the findings have significant implications for personal well-being and leadership development.