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→रसः ॥ Mercury: adding references and content
Mention about metalsmith (कार्मारः) is made in Rigveda (9.112.2)<blockquote>कार्मारो अश्मभिर्द्युभिर्हिरण्यवन्तमिच्छतीन्द्रायेन्दो परि स्रव ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.191.15)</blockquote>A furnace, blower and fire - the setup used by a metalsmith has been described. Fire is described as a 'cradle of gems' that melts gold and the blower (ध्मातरी dhmaatari) or metalsmith blows to produce sharp flame in a furnace. <blockquote>यदीमह त्रितो दिव्युप ध्मातेव धमति शिशीते ध्मातरी यथा ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.9.5)</blockquote>Shatapatha Brahmana introduces the word "bhastraa" meaning a leather bellow used to blow air into a furnace (1.1.2.7, 1.6.3.16).
Mention about metalsmith (कार्मारः) is made in Rigveda (9.112.2)<blockquote>कार्मारो अश्मभिर्द्युभिर्हिरण्यवन्तमिच्छतीन्द्रायेन्दो परि स्रव ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.191.15)</blockquote>A furnace, blower and fire - the setup used by a metalsmith has been described. Fire is described as a 'cradle of gems' that melts gold and the blower (ध्मातरी dhmaatari) or metalsmith blows to produce sharp flame in a furnace. <blockquote>यदीमह त्रितो दिव्युप ध्मातेव धमति शिशीते ध्मातरी यथा ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.9.5)</blockquote>Shatapatha Brahmana introduces the word "bhastraa" meaning a leather bellow used to blow air into a furnace (1.1.2.7, 1.6.3.16).
Yajurveda was the first literature to mention gold (हिरण्यं), "shyaamaayasa (श्यामं)" or "krshnaayasa" which is black metal or iron specifically, loha or red metal copper (लोहं), sisam or lead (सीसं) and trapu or tin (त्रपु) in the Rudrachamaka.<blockquote>हिरण्यं च मे यश् च मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे सीसं च मे त्रपु च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. Veda. 18.13)</blockquote>Atharvaveda describes the genesis of the shankha (conch) and mukta (pearl) in the oceans.<blockquote>दिवि जातः समुद्रजः सिन्धुतस्पर्याभृतः । स नो हिरण्यजाः शङ्ख आयुष्प्रतरणो मणिः ॥४॥ (Athar. Veda. 4.10.4)<ref>Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AA/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0% Kanda 4 Sukta 10])</ref></blockquote>Summary: This Atharvaveda sukta (4.10.1-7) extols the greatness of shankha as the precious gem which has taken birth from Vayu, Antariksha and other mandalas as the remover of all papa (sins) and protector from all kinds of ailments, remover of poverty and unforseen disasters. Shankha first arose in the celestial worlds and then from the oceans on earth.<ref>Atharvaveda Subodh Bhashya, Volume 1 (Pages 163-164)</ref>
Yajurveda was the first literature to mention gold (हिरण्यं), "shyaamaayasa (श्यामं)" or "krshnaayasa" which is black metal or iron specifically, loha or red metal copper (लोहं), sisam or lead (सीसं) and trapu or tin (त्रपु) in the Rudrachamaka, clearly mentions the production of metals from yajna. Agni clearly has a vital role in the extraction and working of metals. <blockquote>हिरण्यं च मे यश् च मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे सीसं च मे त्रपु च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. Veda. 18.13)</blockquote>Atharvaveda describes the genesis of the shankha (conch) and mukta (pearl) in the oceans.<blockquote>दिवि जातः समुद्रजः सिन्धुतस्पर्याभृतः । स नो हिरण्यजाः शङ्ख आयुष्प्रतरणो मणिः ॥४॥ (Athar. Veda. 4.10.4)<ref>Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AA/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0% Kanda 4 Sukta 10])</ref></blockquote>Summary: This Atharvaveda sukta (4.10.1-7) extols the greatness of shankha as the precious gem which has taken birth from Vayu, Antariksha and other mandalas as the remover of all papa (sins) and protector from all kinds of ailments, remover of poverty and unforseen disasters. Shankha first arose in the celestial worlds and then from the oceans on earth.<ref>Atharvaveda Subodh Bhashya, Volume 1 (Pages 163-164)</ref>
Chandogya Upanisad recognised that metals have intrinsic properties irrespective of the shapes that these may assume (Cha. Up 6.1.5 & 6). It stipulated that one can join gold with the help of borax, lead with the help of tin 'etc.<blockquote>तद्यथा लवणेन सुवर्णँ सन्दध्यात्सुवर्णेन रजतँ रजतेन त्रपु त्रपुणा सीसँ सीसेन लोहं लोहेन दारु दारु चर्मणा ॥ ७ ॥ (Chan. Upan. 4.17.7)<ref>Chandogya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4 Khanda 17])</ref></blockquote>Summary: Just as one would join together (pieces of) gold by borax, by gold silver, by silver tin, by tin lead, by lead iron, by iron wood or by leather.<ref>Mm. Ganganath Jha. (1923) ''Chhandogya Upanishad and Sri Sankara's Commentary.'' Madras: The India Printing Press. (Page 261)</ref>
Chandogya Upanisad recognised that metals have intrinsic properties irrespective of the shapes that these may assume (Cha. Up 6.1.5 & 6). It stipulated that one can join gold with the help of borax, lead with the help of tin 'etc.<blockquote>तद्यथा लवणेन सुवर्णँ सन्दध्यात्सुवर्णेन रजतँ रजतेन त्रपु त्रपुणा सीसँ सीसेन लोहं लोहेन दारु दारु चर्मणा ॥ ७ ॥ (Chan. Upan. 4.17.7)<ref>Chandogya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4 Khanda 17])</ref></blockquote>Summary: Just as one would join together (pieces of) gold by borax, by gold silver, by silver tin, by tin lead, by lead iron, by iron wood or by leather.<ref>Mm. Ganganath Jha. (1923) ''Chhandogya Upanishad and Sri Sankara's Commentary.'' Madras: The India Printing Press. (Page 261)</ref>
The commonly used eight metals in antiquity are gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, zinc and mercury.<ref name=":4">Srinivasan, Sharada and Ranganathan, Srinivasa. (2013) ''[http://eprints.nias.res.in/374/1/B8-2013%20Minerals%20and%20Metals%20Heritage%20of%20India.pdf Minerals and Metals Heritage of India.]'' Bangalore:National Institute of Advanced Studies.</ref>
The commonly used eight metals in antiquity are gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, zinc and mercury.<ref name=":4">Srinivasan, Sharada and Ranganathan, Srinivasa. (2013) ''[http://eprints.nias.res.in/374/1/B8-2013%20Minerals%20and%20Metals%20Heritage%20of%20India.pdf Minerals and Metals Heritage of India.]'' Bangalore:National Institute of Advanced Studies.</ref>
== The Ores of Metals ==
== The Eight Metals of Antiquity ==
The present section reviews the important metals and interesting points about their role since ancient times.
The present section reviews the important metals and interesting points about their role since ancient times.
=== सुवर्णम् रजतश्च ॥ Gold and Silver ===
=== सुवर्णम् हिरण्यम् वा ॥ Gold ===
Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and were used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metals. In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC. Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.
Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. However, not many gold artifacts dating to Pre-Harappan period have been reported although in Rgveda Gold and its alloys with Ag and Cu have been mentioned in many places, such as, 1-85.9, 88.5, 67.3; II-37.9; V-54.15, 57.1, 60.4; VIII - 7.27-32 etc. In Vedic literature this metal has been mentioned as Hiranya (हिरण्यम्) probably because of its high corrosion and oxidation resistance and the practice of its preservation through generations.<ref name=":5">Bhanu Prakash (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Metals and Metallugy: Page 80 )</ref>
* Oldest literary reference to usage of Gold and Silver in Rigveda
A noble metal, gold, is found in the native state, and was used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metal. In human civilization it has been named as the most sinister and deadly metal although due to its ductility and softness it had proved worthless for making any war weapon.
Extraction Process: Gravity separation or panning. When a pan containing the suspension is agitated under water, gold particles separate and settle at the bottom of the pan, while sand and soil are washed away. The second process known to ancient craftsmen is that of amalgamation with Mercury and recovery of gold by evaporation and distillation of mercury.<ref name=":5" />
In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC.<ref name=":4" />
* Oldest literary reference to usage of Gold in Rigveda
* World's deepest gold mines are found in Karnataka state of India
* World's deepest gold mines are found in Karnataka state of India
=== रजतः ॥ Silver ===
Unlike gold, the brilliant white metal silver, is related to Chandra, has been introduced relatively late largely because of its non-availability in the nature as native metal. It is rarely found in nature as virgin metal.
Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.
=== ताम्रम् ॥ Copper ===
=== ताम्रम् ॥ Copper ===
=== रसः ॥ Mercury ===
=== रसः ॥ Mercury ===
Ore of Mercury: Cinnabar (Hingula)
Mercury is a metal that has been of great alchemical importance in ancient times. It is a volatile metal, which is easily produced by heating cinnabar followed by the downward distillation of mercury vapour. Some of the earliest literary references to the use of mercury distillation come from Indian treatises such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Ayurvedic texts have presented the science of using mercury, as [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]].
Mercury is a metal that has been of great alchemical importance in ancient times. It is a volatile metal, which is easily produced by heating cinnabar followed by the downward distillation of mercury vapour. Some of the earliest literary references to the use of mercury distillation come from Indian treatises such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Ayurvedic texts have presented the science of using mercury, as [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]].
* Vermilion or Cinnabar, mercuric sulphide, is used to make the red/maroon mark on the forehead as described in ancient texts of Sanatana Dharma
* Sindhur or Vermilion was Cinnabar, mercuric sulphide, was used to make the red/maroon mark on the forehead as described by Charaka.
[[File:Delhi Iron Pillar.png|thumb|Delhi Iron Pillar " The Rustless Wonder"]]
[[File:Delhi Iron Pillar.png|thumb|Delhi Iron Pillar " The Rustless Wonder"]]