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Line 209: − === Prediction of Rainfall === − The systematic study of meteorological science was made by our ancient astronomers and astrologers. Agriculture is totally dependent on rainfall. This fact was first realised by Indians. Hence they started gauging the sky for rainfall prediction. Parashra gave the techniques of rainfall prediction and agricultural practices for crop production. Garg invented the science of astrology. Arybhata measured the time period of different planets and distance from earth. Varahmihira (600 AD) studied weather prediction and measurement of rainfall, touching zenith in the meteorological science. The hypotheses given by ancient scientists are simple and costly apparatus were not used. Observations coupled with experience over centuries developed meteorology (Varshney, 2007). − − The methods used by local and indigenous people for forecasting rainfall and other weather conditions on the basis of bio-indicator and the phenology of plants and behaviour of animals is coined as a new term – Presage biology. The production and application of local forecasts are deeply localized, derived from intimate interactions with a micro-environment whose rhythms are intertwined with the cycles of seasonal changes. Local indicators and local knowledge systems can not be replaced with scientific knowledge, because they are holistic and specific to local situations, providing farmers and others with the ability to make decisions and prepare for the coming agricultural year. Mechanisms for integrating both traditional and scientific weather forecast systems would reduce uncertainties and improve farm management, as well as provide a basis for integrating scientific forecasts into existing decision processes of farmers (Acharya, 2011). Bio-indicators as well as Almanacs (Panchang) have been used to predict the weather for a very long time and many times proved very effective and successful.<ref name=":0">Patil, Parashuram Vishnu. (2012) Ph. D. Thesis: ''[https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/106088 Studies on traditional agricultural practices and food grain management from Bhor Pune district and Mahad Raigad district Maharashtra state.]'' Savitribai Phule Pune University. ([https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/106088/12/12_chapter4.pdf Chapter 4])</ref> − − The study of the correlation between weather and heavenly phenomena and their impact on crop prospects was a part of agricultural activities. Prior of the Vedic period we have no record of this type of practice, excepting a few instances. Development of this idea is noticed during the Harappa period in regard to several heavenly bodies which were believed, not only in India but also elsewhere, to be rain-bearing agents. These are Mrgasira (Orionis), Krttika (Pleiades) and Venus.109 In all probability these heavenly bodies got predominance as indicator of seasonal rainfall, cultivation of crops other than barley and wheat, and growth of fish-crops. − − The idea of correlation between seasonal rainfall and associated heavenly phenomena is explicit in the Vedic period. Crop prospects began to be studied in relation to seasonal rain, fogginess and dew under the influence of heavenly bodies. Rainfall: The R. gveda recognizes two seasons of rainfall, associated with summer solstice and winter solstice. Line 229:
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→कृषिः ॥ Tillage: corrected verse
Krshi Vijnana (Samskrit: कृषिविज्ञानम्) refers to the science of [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]]. Cultivation involves a long process starting from the preparation of land, to sowing of crops under favourable climate conditions, followed by crop protection and harvesting at the appropriate time. Ancient farmers planned their field activities involving meticulous coordination of climatic conditions with knowledge of soil and crop combinations for good yields. It involved watching the skies for cloud formation, prediction of rainfall and soil preparation thereafter selecting the appropriate crop to be sown (based on panchanga) followed by seed sowing and appropriate steps to manure, pollinate and protect the yield from pests. Thus it cannot be more emphasised that a Krshaka (farmer) was highly knowledgeable in the vijnana (scientific) aspects of cultivation, such as astronomy, soil sciences, meteorology, hydrology and irrigation techniques, genetics (rotation of crops and seed selection), ecology, botany, plant protection, mechanics (for making implements) and animal husbandry used in modern parlance.
Krshi Vijnana (Samskrit: कृषिविज्ञानम्) refers to the science of agriculture. Cultivation involves a long process starting from the preparation of land, to sowing of crops under favourable climate conditions, followed by crop protection and harvesting at the appropriate time. Ancient farmers planned their field activities involving meticulous coordination of climatic conditions with knowledge of soil and crop combinations for good yields. It involved watching the skies for cloud formation, prediction of rainfall and soil preparation thereafter selecting the appropriate crop to be sown (based on panchanga) followed by seed sowing and appropriate steps to manure, pollinate and protect the yield from pests. Thus it cannot be more emphasised that a Krshaka (farmer) was highly knowledgeable in the vijnana (scientific) aspects of cultivation, such as astronomy, soil sciences, meteorology, hydrology and irrigation techniques, genetics (rotation of crops and seed selection), ecology, botany, plant protection, mechanics (for making implements) and animal husbandry used in modern parlance.
Bharatiya way of life involves a divine involvement in all activities, so also Krshi karma or Sasyaveda (agriculture) was revered highly for such an activity sustains life of all beings on earth. In the present day there is a dire need for research on traditional agricultural practices to find out the ethos behind it and adopt it in the modern times.
Bharatiya way of life involves a divine involvement in all activities, so also Krshi karma or Sasyaveda (agriculture) was revered highly for such an activity sustains life of all beings on earth. In the present day there is a dire need for research on traditional agricultural practices to find out the ethos behind it and adopt it in the modern times.
Sadly in the present day due to the so called political and economic development and even in the presence of "advanced technology", the farmer is adversely affected in many ways and is at the lowest economic strata of the society. {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUze5aGqdKY&list=PLtUPB3SCffXOlZy1LfSvO9ZAcKxUQvct_&index=12
Sadly in the present day due to the so called political and economic development and even in the presence of "advanced technology", the farmer is adversely affected in many ways and is at the lowest economic strata of the society.
{{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_jPTV_fvUQ&feature=youtu.be
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|dimensions=500x248
|container=frame
|container=frame
|description=Video Courtesy : Prof. D.P. Mishra, Dept. of Aerospace Engg, IIT Kanpur
|description=Introduction to Vrikshayurveda
}}
}}
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Agricultural operations involving crop production comprised soil-preparation inclusive of tillage and fertilization, cropping system, harvesting, crop-processing and preservation. Local storage of the food grains, and fruits were given importance thus sustaining local economy and trade was an important aspect that contributed to the growth of the overall economy of the country until the recent centuries. Newer techniques to protect the agricultural produce and transportation to distant places are significant developments brought about by industrial revolution which has led to opening up of new avenues of trade and commerce in the recent few centuries.
Agricultural operations involving crop production comprised soil-preparation inclusive of tillage and fertilization, cropping system, harvesting, crop-processing and preservation. Local storage of the food grains, and fruits were given importance thus sustaining local economy and trade was an important aspect that contributed to the growth of the overall economy of the country until the recent centuries. Newer techniques to protect the agricultural produce and transportation to distant places are significant developments brought about by industrial revolution which has led to opening up of new avenues of trade and commerce in the recent few centuries.
The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.
The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.
Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 391 - 416)</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य प्हलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref name=":4">Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.
Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Gopal. Lallaji, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Agriculture : Pages 391 - 416)</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य फलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref name=":4">Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.
A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.
A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.
Seasonal correlations with crops are enumerated in the Taittiriya Samhita. It presents a small crop chart containing four crops and their associated ripening seasons: <blockquote>यवं ग्रीष्मायौषधीर्वर्षाभ्यो व्रीहीञ्छरदे माषतिलौ हेमन्तशिशिराभ्याम् । (Tait. Samh. 7.2.10.2). </blockquote>The hot season for barley (यव); autumn for rice; winter and cool season for beans and sesame. Barley ripened in summer was sown undoubtedly in winter as in present day. Likewise rice ripened in autumn used to be sown in the beginning of the rains. Beans and sesame planted at the time of summer rains were ripened in the winter and the cool season.<ref name=":3" />
Seasonal correlations with crops are enumerated in the Taittiriya Samhita. It presents a small crop chart containing four crops and their associated ripening seasons: <blockquote>यवं ग्रीष्मायौषधीर्वर्षाभ्यो व्रीहीञ्छरदे माषतिलौ हेमन्तशिशिराभ्याम् । (Tait. Samh. 7.2.10.2). </blockquote>The hot season for barley (यव); autumn for rice; winter and cool season for beans and sesame. Barley ripened in summer was sown undoubtedly in winter as in present day. Likewise rice ripened in autumn used to be sown in the beginning of the rains. Beans and sesame planted at the time of summer rains were ripened in the winter and the cool season.<ref name=":3" />
=== Sowing Methods ===
==== Sowing Methods ====
Sowing being an important process in cultivation, it was given serious attention and care. Befitting its importance solemn rites were performed on the occasion. Panini (IV.3.45) shows that farmers selected auspicious days for sowing seeds; the full-moon day of the month of Agrahayana was one such auspicious day. Apart from the rites that are followed, a few points about the knowledge of ancient agriculturalists regarding sowing methods, crop season, water availability are discussed.<ref name=":1" />
Sowing being an important process in cultivation, it was given serious attention and care. Befitting its importance solemn rites were performed on the occasion. Panini (IV.3.45) shows that farmers selected auspicious days for sowing seeds; the full-moon day of the month of Agrahayana was one such auspicious day. Apart from the rites that are followed, a few points about the knowledge of ancient agriculturalists regarding sowing methods, crop season, water availability are discussed.<ref name=":1" />
* '''Seed quantity''' required per field was well estimated practically which are confirmed by epigraphic records.
* '''Seed quantity''' required per field was well estimated practically which are confirmed by epigraphic records.
Pest signifies any insect, fungus, etc. which destroys plants. Pesticide means pest-killer. The major calamities, termed as Iti (ईति) were traditonally enumerated as being six: excessive rain, drought, locusts, rats, parrots and foreign invasions. All these have a reference to agriculture. The term Iti signifies an infectious disease also, but we do not find any reference to its application for the diseases of the plants. In Rig veda (6.50.1-3) we find prayers to Indra and Rudra for protecting crops from drought and lightning.
Pest signifies any insect, fungus, etc. which destroys plants. Pesticide means pest-killer. The major calamities, termed as Iti (ईति) were traditonally enumerated as being six: excessive rain, drought, locusts, rats, parrots and foreign invasions. All these have a reference to agriculture. The term Iti signifies an infectious disease also, but we do not find any reference to its application for the diseases of the plants. In Rig veda (6.50.1-3) we find prayers to Indra and Rudra for protecting crops from drought and lightning.
For warding off harmful insects several spells and rites are prescribed in the Atharvaveda against insects, rodents, borers, locusts, and moles harming the field. The Vrkshayurveda of Surapala has two sections, one the knowledge of the diseases of trees (rogajnana) (shlokas 165-183) and the other on the treatment (chikitsa) of the diseases of plants (shlokas 184-222).
For warding off harmful insects several spells and rites are prescribed in the Atharvaveda against insects, rodents, borers, locusts, and moles harming the field. The Vrkshayurveda of Surapala has two sections, one the knowledge of the diseases of trees (rogajnana) (shlokas 165-183) and the other on the treatment (chikitsa) of the diseases of plants (shlokas 184-222).<ref name=":1" />
We see from the ancient texts that the knowledge of protection measures was well developed.
We see from the ancient texts that the knowledge of protection measures was well developed.
* Special manures for flowering plants, and creepers are described.
* Special manures for flowering plants, and creepers are described.
Thus fertilizing quality of manures and application after the ploughing of the field and sometimes at the time of the transplantation or later after weeding are well noted.
Thus fertilizing quality of manures and application after the ploughing of the field and sometimes at the time of the transplantation or later after weeding are well noted.
=== Prediction of Rainfall ===
The systematic study of meteorological science was made by our ancient astronomers and astrologers. Agriculture is totally dependent on rainfall as was first realized by Indians. Hence they started gauging the sky for rainfall prediction. Parashara gave the techniques of rainfall prediction and agricultural practices for crop production. Garg invented the science of astrology. Arybhata measured the time period of different grahas (ग्रहाः | planets) and distance from earth. Varahmihira (600 AD) studied weather prediction and measurement of rainfall, touching zenith in the meteorological science. The hypotheses given by ancient scientists are simple and costly apparatus were not used. Observations coupled with experience over centuries developed meteorology (Varshney, 2007).<ref name=":3" />
The methods used by local and indigenous people for forecasting rainfall and other weather conditions on the basis of bio-indicator and the phenology of plants and behaviour of animals is coined as a new term – Presage biology. The production and application of local forecasts are deeply localized, derived from intimate interactions with a micro-environment whose rhythms are intertwined with the cycles of seasonal changes. Local indicators and local knowledge systems can not be replaced with scientific knowledge, because they are holistic and specific to local situations, providing farmers and others with the ability to make decisions and prepare for the coming agricultural year. Mechanisms for integrating both traditional and scientific weather forecast systems would reduce uncertainties and improve farm management, as well as provide a basis for integrating scientific forecasts into existing decision processes of farmers (Acharya, 2011). Bio-indicators as well as Almanacs (Panchang) have been used to predict the weather for a very long time and many times proved very effective and successful.<ref name=":03" />
The study of the correlation between weather and heavenly phenomena and their impact on crop prospects was a part of agricultural activities. Development of this idea is noticed during the Harappa period in regard to several heavenly bodies which were believed, not only in India but also elsewhere, to be rain-bearing agents. These are Mrgasira (Orionis), Krttika (Pleiades) and Venus. In all probability these heavenly bodies got predominance as indicator of seasonal rainfall, cultivation of crops other than barley and wheat, and growth of fish-crops.
The idea of correlation between seasonal rainfall and associated heavenly phenomena is explicit in the Vedic period. Crop prospects began to be studied in relation to seasonal rain, fogginess and dew under the influence of heavenly bodies. Rainfall: The R. gveda recognizes two seasons of rainfall, associated with summer solstice and winter solstice.
== Agricultural implements ==
== Agricultural implements ==
Transport for carrying agricultural products: Two types of carriers, viz ana– sa (carts) and sƒakat.a (wagon) were for commercial types. The former was two-wheeled, made of woods of Acacia and Dalbergia with bamboo poles and wheels rimmed with metal tyre (pavi). The latter was also wooden body and especially meant for carrying agricultural products from the field. The chariots, in addition to those two were used for carrying agricultural products from the field. Animals employed for drawing these carriers were ox, stallion, ram and dog.75
Transport for carrying agricultural products: Two types of carriers, viz ana– sa (carts) and sƒakat.a (wagon) were for commercial types. The former was two-wheeled, made of woods of Acacia and Dalbergia with bamboo poles and wheels rimmed with metal tyre (pavi). The latter was also wooden body and especially meant for carrying agricultural products from the field. The chariots, in addition to those two were used for carrying agricultural products from the field. Animals employed for drawing these carriers were ox, stallion, ram and dog.75
An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.
An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.
== References ==
== References ==
<references />
<references />
[[Category:Shastras]]