Changes

Krshi Vijnana (Samskrit: कृषिविज्ञानम्) refers to the science of [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]]. Cultivation involves a long process starting from the preparation of land, to  sowing of crops under favourable climate conditions, followed by crop protection and harvesting at the appropriate time. Ancient farmers planned their field activities involving meticulous coordination of climatic conditions with knowledge of soil and crop combinations for good yields. It involved watching the skies for cloud formation, prediction of rainfall and soil preparation thereafter selecting the appropriate crop to be sown (based on panchanga) followed by seed sowing and appropriate steps to manure, pollinate and protect the yield from pests. Thus it cannot be more emphasised that a Krshaka (farmer) was highly knowledgeable in the vijnana (scientific) aspects of cultivation, such as astronomy, soil sciences, meteorology, hydrology and irrigation techniques, genetics (rotation of crops and seed selection), ecology, botany, plant protection, mechanics (for making implements) and animal husbandry used in modern parlance.

 

Krshi Vijnana (Samskrit: कृषिविज्ञानम्) refers to the science of agriculture. Cultivation involves a long process starting from the preparation of land, to  sowing of crops under favourable climate conditions, followed by crop protection and harvesting at the appropriate time. Ancient farmers planned their field activities involving meticulous coordination of climatic conditions with knowledge of soil and crop combinations for good yields. It involved watching the skies for cloud formation, prediction of rainfall and soil preparation thereafter selecting the appropriate crop to be sown (based on panchanga) followed by seed sowing and appropriate steps to manure, pollinate and protect the yield from pests. Thus it cannot be more emphasised that a Krshaka (farmer) was highly knowledgeable in the vijnana (scientific) aspects of cultivation, such as astronomy, soil sciences, meteorology, hydrology and irrigation techniques, genetics (rotation of crops and seed selection), ecology, botany, plant protection, mechanics (for making implements) and animal husbandry used in modern parlance.

Bharatiya way of life involves a divine involvement in all activities, so also Krshi karma or Sasyaveda (agriculture) was revered highly for such an activity sustains life of all beings on earth. In the present day there is a dire need for research on traditional agricultural practices to find out the ethos behind it and adopt it in the modern times.   

Bharatiya way of life involves a divine involvement in all activities, so also Krshi karma or Sasyaveda (agriculture) was revered highly for such an activity sustains life of all beings on earth. In the present day there is a dire need for research on traditional agricultural practices to find out the ethos behind it and adopt it in the modern times.   

Sadly in the present day due to the so called political and economic development and even in the presence of "advanced technology", the farmer is adversely affected in many ways and is at the lowest economic strata of the society. {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUze5aGqdKY&list=PLtUPB3SCffXOlZy1LfSvO9ZAcKxUQvct_&index=12

Sadly in the present day due to the so called political and economic development and even in the presence of "advanced technology", the farmer is adversely affected in many ways and is at the lowest economic strata of the society.

{{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_jPTV_fvUQ&feature=youtu.be

|alignment=right

|alignment=right

|dimensions=500x248

|dimensions=500x248

|container=frame

|container=frame

|description=Video Courtesy : Prof. D.P. Mishra, Dept. of Aerospace Engg, IIT Kanpur

|description=Introduction to Vrikshayurveda

}}

}}

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

Agricultural operations involving crop production comprised soil-preparation inclusive of tillage and fertilization, cropping system, harvesting, crop-processing and preservation. Local storage of the food grains, and fruits were given importance thus sustaining local economy and trade was an important aspect that contributed to the growth of the overall economy of the country until the recent centuries. Newer techniques to protect the agricultural produce and transportation to distant places are significant developments brought about by industrial revolution which has led to opening up of new avenues of trade and commerce in the recent few centuries.  

Agricultural operations involving crop production comprised soil-preparation inclusive of tillage and fertilization, cropping system, harvesting, crop-processing and preservation. Local storage of the food grains, and fruits were given importance thus sustaining local economy and trade was an important aspect that contributed to the growth of the overall economy of the country until the recent centuries. Newer techniques to protect the agricultural produce and transportation to distant places are significant developments brought about by industrial revolution which has led to opening up of new avenues of trade and commerce in the recent few centuries.  

Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.  

Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.  

The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides. The Rigveda recognizes two types of land. These are fertile or apnasvati and arid or aartana.<blockquote>स हि शर्धो न मारुतं तुविष्वणिरप्नस्वतीषू॒र्वरास्विष्टनिरार्तनास्विष्टनि: । (Rig. Veda. 1.127.6)</blockquote>The former is marshy or riverine tract, known as anupa and the latter, arid, known as jangala. Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature. Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed. Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />

The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides.  

 

 

The Rigveda recognizes two types of land. These are fertile or apnasvati and arid or aartana.<blockquote>स हि शर्धो न मारुतं तुविष्वणिरप्नस्वतीषू॒र्वरास्विष्टनिरार्तनास्विष्टनि: । (Rig. Veda. 1.127.6)</blockquote>The former is marshy or riverine tract, known as anupa and the latter, arid, known as jangala. Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature. Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed. Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />

Vrkshayurveda of Surapala has a separate section on bhuminirupana or determining the ground. There are other classifications based on color (varna) and taste (rasa) of the soil.  

Vrkshayurveda of Surapala has a separate section on bhuminirupana or determining the ground. There are other classifications based on color (varna) and taste (rasa) of the soil.  

The Arthashastra (2.24.22) says that a region where the foam strikes (river bank) (phenaaghaata) is suited for creeper fruits; regions on the outskirts of overflows (parivahanta) for long pepper, grapes and sugarcanes; those on the borders of wells (kupaparyanta) for vegetables and roots; those on the borders of moist beds of lakes (haraniparyanta) for green grasses; and ridges (paalya) for plants reaped by cutting, such as perfume plants, medicinal herbs, usihira grass and others.

The Arthashastra (2.24.22) says that a region where the foam strikes (river bank) (phenaaghaata) is suited for creeper fruits; regions on the outskirts of overflows (parivahanta) for long pepper, grapes and sugarcanes; those on the borders of wells (kupaparyanta) for vegetables and roots; those on the borders of moist beds of lakes (haraniparyanta) for green grasses; and ridges (paalya) for plants reaped by cutting, such as perfume plants, medicinal herbs, usihira grass and others.

The above discussion clearly shows that observations of the natural phenomenon by the farmer are far more holistic in determining the nature of the soil to arrive at an appropriate crop to be sown.  

 

The above discussion clearly shows that observations of the natural phenomenon by the farmer are far more holistic in determining the nature of the soil to arrive at an appropriate crop to be sown.

=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===

=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===

The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.     

The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.     

Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which  seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 391 - )</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य प्हलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref name=":4">Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.  

Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which  seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Gopal. Lallaji, (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Agriculture : Pages 391 - 416)</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य प्हलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref name=":4">Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.  

A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.  

A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.  

* '''Knowledge of kinds of plants''': Plants (called as padapa, because they "drink" through their roots) in general, include big trees (vanaspati), trees (druma), creepers (lata) and thickets (gulma)

* '''Knowledge of kinds of plants''': Plants (called as padapa, because they "drink" through their roots) in general, include big trees (vanaspati), trees (druma), creepers (lata) and thickets (gulma)

* '''Three ways of propagation''' namely, by seeds (Bija), scion of a plant (Kaanda) and bulbous root (kanda). Vrkshayurveda by Surapala lists different groups of plants that grow from seeds and scions, from bulbous roots, and from both seeds and bulbous roots (verses 45-51).

* '''Three ways of propagation''' namely, by seeds (Bija), scion of a plant (Kaanda) and bulbous root (kanda). Vrkshayurveda by Surapala lists different groups of plants that grow from seeds and scions, from bulbous roots, and from both seeds and bulbous roots (verses 45-51).

* '''Knowledge about seeds''' has two main parts - the selection of good seeds and sowing them in an appropriate manner mentioned in Milindapanho text. It was a recognized fact that all seeds do not germinate, and that infertility is due to seed defects. Parching of seeds (Mahabharata 12.320.33), excessive underground heat (Mahabharata 12.181.7), dehusked seeds (Mahabharata 2.77.13) were unproductive.

* '''Knowledge about seed fertility''' has two main parts - the selection of good seeds and sowing them in an appropriate manner mentioned in Milindapanho text. It was a recognized fact that all seeds do not germinate, and that infertility is due to seed defects. Parching of seeds (Mahabharata 12.320.33), excessive underground heat (Mahabharata 12.181.7), dehusked seeds (Mahabharata 2.77.13) were unproductive.

* '''Government intervention''' is needed for seed/root collection; a Sitadhyaksha  (agricultural officer) is required to collect, in proper seasons, all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, bulbous roots, roots, creeper fruits, flax and cotton. (Kautilya Arthashastra 2.24.1)

* '''Government intervention''' is needed for seed/root collection; a Sitadhyaksha  (agricultural officer) is required to collect, in proper seasons, all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, bulbous roots, roots, creeper fruits, flax and cotton. (Kautilya Arthashastra 2.24.1)

* '''Seed processing''' was well described in Krshi parasara (157-167)<ref name=":4" />. Seeds are to be collected in appropriate season, dried in sun, separated from the chaff, collection of uniform seeds, stored in grass packages, and preserved in safe locations far from anthills, lamps, fire or smoke etc.

* '''Seed processing''' was well described in Krshi parasara (157-167)<ref name=":4" />. Seeds are to be collected in appropriate season, dried in sun, separated from the chaff, collection of uniform seeds, stored in grass packages, and preserved in safe locations far from anthills, lamps, fire or smoke etc.

Seasonal correlations with crops are enumerated in the Taittiriya Samhita. It presents a small crop chart containing four crops and their associated ripening seasons:  <blockquote>यवं ग्रीष्मायौषधीर्वर्षाभ्यो व्रीहीञ्छरदे माषतिलौ हेमन्तशिशिराभ्याम् । (Tait. Samh. 7.2.10.2). </blockquote>The hot season for barley (यव); autumn for rice; winter and cool season for beans and sesame. Barley ripened in summer was sown undoubtedly in winter as in present day. Likewise rice ripened in autumn used to be sown in the beginning of the rains. Beans and sesame planted at the time of summer rains were ripened in the winter and the cool season.<ref name=":3" />

Seasonal correlations with crops are enumerated in the Taittiriya Samhita. It presents a small crop chart containing four crops and their associated ripening seasons:  <blockquote>यवं ग्रीष्मायौषधीर्वर्षाभ्यो व्रीहीञ्छरदे माषतिलौ हेमन्तशिशिराभ्याम् । (Tait. Samh. 7.2.10.2). </blockquote>The hot season for barley (यव); autumn for rice; winter and cool season for beans and sesame. Barley ripened in summer was sown undoubtedly in winter as in present day. Likewise rice ripened in autumn used to be sown in the beginning of the rains. Beans and sesame planted at the time of summer rains were ripened in the winter and the cool season.<ref name=":3" />

=== Sowing Methods ===

==== Sowing Methods ====

Sowing being an important process in cultivation, it was given serious attention and care. Befitting its importance solemn rites were performed on the occasion. Panini (IV.3.45) shows that farmers selected auspicious days for  sowing seeds; the full-moon day of the month of Agrahayana was one such auspicious day. Apart from the rites that are followed, a few points about the knowledge of ancient agriculturalists regarding sowing methods, crop season, water availability are discussed.<ref name=":1" />

Sowing being an important process in cultivation, it was given serious attention and care. Befitting its importance solemn rites were performed on the occasion. Panini (IV.3.45) shows that farmers selected auspicious days for  sowing seeds; the full-moon day of the month of Agrahayana was one such auspicious day. Apart from the rites that are followed, a few points about the knowledge of ancient agriculturalists regarding sowing methods, crop season, water availability are discussed.<ref name=":1" />

* '''Seed quantity''' required per field was well estimated practically which are confirmed by epigraphic records.

* '''Seed quantity''' required per field was well estimated practically which are confirmed by epigraphic records.

*'''Relation between transplantation and growth''' - Krishi parasara requires the cultivators to perform the kattana (possibly meaning thinning out) of paid in the month of Ashadha and Sravana, without which there is an indifferent and poor growth of paddy.  

*'''Relation between transplantation and growth''' - Krishi parasara requires the cultivators to perform the kattana (possibly meaning thinning out) of paid in the month of Ashadha and Sravana, without which there is an indifferent and poor growth of paddy.  

*'''Relation between transplantation and water''' - Water levels after transplantation of the crop plays an important role in disease prevention. In Bhadrapada month water is to be drained off, preserving it up to the roots only. This will keep paddy free from disease (Krishi parasara 193-94).

*'''Relation between transplantation and water''' - Water levels after transplantation of the crop plays an important role in disease prevention. In Bhadrapada month water is to be drained off, preserving it up to the roots only. This will keep paddy free from disease (Krishi parasara 193-94).

*'''Tree transplantation''' and grafting methods were discussed by Varahamihira. The trees are to be transplanted (sahkrdpanaviropana) after plastering them from their root up to the branches with ghee, usira, sesamum, honey, vidanga, milk (kshira) and cowdung. Varahamihira (Brh.S. 54.12-13) brings out the importance of proper spacing in planting trees.

*'''Tree transplantation''' and grafting methods were discussed by Varahamihira. The trees are to be transplanted (sahkrdpanaviropana) after plastering them from their root up to the branches with ghee, usira, sesamum, honey, vidanga, milk (kshira) and cowdung. Varahamihira (Brh.S. 54.12-13) brings out the importance of proper spacing in planting trees. The Vrksayurveda of Surapala gives directions about the plantation of trees in the section called vapanavidhi (the method of sowing). Trees are to be sown or planted on a land which is even and pleasant and in which flowers, sesamum and Masa have been scattered (Krishi parasara 63).<ref name=":1" />

*'''Sowing Seasonal Plants''': The Vrksayurveda of Surapala mentions the months for planting various trees; example mango, pomergranate, and Bakula etc. in Sravana; brinjal etc. in Asvina; Satapattrika, coriander (Dhanyaka) and Muiaka etc. in Karttika, (shloka 88). In Asadha all sorts of seeds may be sown and trees may be planted at will. Margasirsa, Pausa  and Magha are forbidden for sowing etc. (shloka 90).

=== Plant Protection Measures ===

=== Plant Protection Measures ===

The preventive measures to protect plants and crops included a few following methods which are used till date by the farmers. We see from the ancient texts that the knowledge of protection measures was well developed.

Pest signifies any insect, fungus, etc. which destroys plants. Pesticide means pest-killer. The major calamities, termed as Iti (ईति) were traditonally enumerated as being six: excessive rain, drought, locusts, rats, parrots and foreign invasions. All these have a reference to agriculture. The term Iti signifies an infectious disease also, but we do not find any reference to its application for the diseases of the plants. In Rig veda (6.50.1-3) we find prayers to Indra and Rudra for protecting crops from drought and lightning.

* driving away the pest-bird by din and noise. The Rigveda (10.68.1) thus describes, “उदप्रुतो न वयो रक्षमाणा वावदतो अभ्रियस्येव घोषा: । Like the farmers make noise to drive away the birds from fields”.  

 

* control by rotation of crops. The Taittiriya Samhita refers to rotation of crops. Obviously that practice also afforded natural prevention of crops from incest-pest.58

For warding off harmful insects several spells and rites are prescribed in the Atharvaveda against insects, rodents, borers, locusts, and moles harming the field. The Vrkshayurveda of Surapala has two sections, one the knowledge of the diseases of trees (rogajnana) (shlokas 165-183) and the other on the treatment (chikitsa) of the diseases of plants (shlokas 184-222).<ref name=":1" />

Excepting bird no other pestiferous agents were known in the preceding period. A host of such elements infesting grains in the field and unfavourable natural phenomena causing harm to crops came to be known during the Atharvavedic period. The pests inclusive of natural phenomena were.59 a) Borer (tarda) indicating either insect or bird, hooked insect (saman. ka), noxious insect (upakvasa) and locust (patan. ga), b) Rodents (vyadvaras) and rats (a – khu) c) Reptiles d) Natural phenomenon like lightening and sun. Charms and spells formed the preventive and remedial measures. The late Vedic period introduced weed as pest in addition to those recognized in the Atharvaveda. Weed was particularly wheat-pest. Preventive and remedial measures were charms and spells in association with some substances appear to have pesticidal effects. These include: a) spreading of lead after furrowing, b) burying in field the metabolic product (grass) from the bowels of sacrificed cattle and some parts of particular plant substances. Weed control was also recommended by burying of several plantsubstances in the fields before sowing of seeds.60

 

We see from the ancient texts that the knowledge of protection measures was well developed.

* '''Physical methods''' like driving away the pest-bird by din and noise - The Rigveda (10.68.1) thus describes, “उदप्रुतो न वयो रक्षमाणा वावदतो अभ्रियस्येव घोषा: । Like the farmers make noise to drive away the birds from fields”.  

* '''Scarecrows''' - by fixing poles of various designs, was resorted to in order to scare away mischievous birds and beasts.

* '''Control by rotation of crops'''. The Taittiriya Samhita refers to rotation of crops. This practice also afforded natural prevention of incest-pest in crops.<ref name=":3" />

*'''Cures for Tridosha of trees''': The Vrkshayurveda text prescribes cures for trees suffering from the disorders of wind, phlegm and bile (184-92). It gives detailed advice about the treatment of trees infested with insects (193-98). or destroying insects the text recommends administering of water containing milk, carcass water (kunapa), Bhillota, Vaca and cowdung etc.

*'''Cure for Injuries to trees''': A worm-eaten plant is to be irrigated with a solution of oil-cake in water. Insects on leaves are destroyed by dusting them with ashes and brick-dust. Injury caused by insects is healed by a plastering of Jantughna, sesamum, cow’s urine, ghee and Siddhartha and by watering with milk.

 

The evidence about the use of manure in the Vedic period is not clear according to some scholars. The Krshiparasara (shloka 111) recognises the importance of manure for crops and says that without manure the paddy simply grows up, but does not yield any fruit. It is the only text which records the method of preparing manure out of cowdung (107-9). <blockquote>अथ गोमयकूटोद्धारः । माघे गोमयकूटं तु सम्पूज्य श्रद्धयान्वितः । शोभने दिवसे ऋक्षे कुद्दालैस्तोलयेत्ततः ॥ (१०९.३)</blockquote><blockquote>ततो वपनकाले तु कुर्यात् सारविमोचनम् । विना सारेण यद्धान्यं वर्धते प्हलवर्जितम् ॥ (१११.२)</blockquote>It says: in the month of Magha (January - February) a dung heap is raised with the help of a spade. When it is dried in the sun, smaller balls are made out of it. In the month of Phalguna (February-March) these dried balls of dung are placed into holes dug for the purpose in the fields, and at the time of sowing they are scattered in the field’.<ref name=":1" />

 

The other text, which refers to the application of manures to cultivable land, is the Kashyapiyakrishi sukti. In the section (VI) dealing with the work done at the time of the commencement of agriculture, it says that, after duly ploughing the field, the cultivator should place in it cow-dung, goat-dung, or compost (vaalaga) in order to increase its fertility (shloka 263-64). In section XIII, dealing with the method of cultivation to be followed for various grains, it advises that paddy seedlings are to be transplanted in a rice field softened by ploughing and carefully manured with goat-dung and cow-dung with lataa and vratati (shloka 431).

 

The Vrkshayurveda of Surapala gives detailed instructions about the preparation of manures and their applications. Manuring and fertilizing prescriptions require the pit at the root of a plant to be treated by besmearing with the paste of sesamum, oil cake and Vidanga, sprinkling with the milky water or Kunapa (corpse-water), fumigating with ghee and remedying with oil-cake.

 

The use of animal flesh, fat, marrow etc have been described for the preparation of Kunapa (corpse-water) which is used  for application to roots of plants as manure. Water, in which dung, fat, flesh, marrow, brain and blood of a hog is buried  under the earth for a fortnight, is called kunapa (corpse-water) (shloka 105).<ref name=":1" />

 

* Special manures for flowering plants, and creepers are described.

Thus fertilizing quality of manures and application after the ploughing of the field and sometimes at the time of the transplantation or later after weeding are well noted.

The systematic study of meteorological science was made by our ancient astronomers and astrologers. Agriculture is totally dependent on rainfall as was first realized by Indians. Hence they started gauging the sky for rainfall prediction. Parashara gave the techniques of rainfall prediction and agricultural practices for crop production. Garg invented the science of astrology. Arybhata measured the time period of different grahas (ग्रहाः | planets) and distance from earth. Varahmihira (600 AD) studied weather prediction and measurement of rainfall, touching zenith in the meteorological science. The hypotheses given by ancient scientists are simple and costly apparatus were not used. Observations coupled with experience over centuries developed meteorology (Varshney, 2007).<ref name=":3" />

 

The methods used by local and indigenous people for forecasting rainfall and other weather conditions on the basis of bio-indicator and the phenology of plants and behaviour of animals is coined as a new term – Presage biology. The production and application of local forecasts are deeply localized, derived from intimate interactions with a micro-environment whose rhythms are intertwined with the cycles of seasonal changes. Local indicators and local knowledge systems can not be replaced with scientific knowledge, because they are holistic and specific to local situations, providing farmers and others with the ability to make decisions and prepare for the coming agricultural year. Mechanisms for integrating both traditional and scientific weather forecast systems would reduce uncertainties and improve farm management, as well as provide a basis for integrating scientific forecasts into existing decision processes of farmers (Acharya, 2011). Bio-indicators as well as Almanacs (Panchang) have been used to predict the weather for a very long time and many times proved very effective and successful.<ref name=":03" />

 

The study of the correlation between weather and heavenly phenomena and their impact on crop prospects was a part of agricultural activities. Development of this idea is noticed during the Harappa period in regard to several heavenly bodies which were believed, not only in India but also elsewhere, to be rain-bearing agents. These are Mrgasira (Orionis), Krttika (Pleiades) and Venus. In all probability these heavenly bodies got predominance as indicator of seasonal rainfall, cultivation of crops other than barley and wheat, and growth of fish-crops.  

 

The idea of correlation between seasonal rainfall and associated heavenly phenomena is explicit in the Vedic period. Crop prospects began to be studied in relation to seasonal rain, fogginess and dew under the influence of heavenly bodies. Rainfall: The R. gveda recognizes two seasons of rainfall, associated with summer solstice and winter solstice.

== Agricultural implements ==

== Agricultural implements ==

Transport for carrying agricultural products: Two types of carriers, viz ana– sa (carts) and sƒakat.a (wagon) were for commercial types. The former was two-wheeled, made of woods of Acacia and Dalbergia with bamboo poles and wheels rimmed with metal tyre (pavi). The latter was also wooden body and especially meant for carrying agricultural products from the field. The chariots, in addition to those two were used for carrying agricultural products from the field. Animals employed for drawing these carriers were ox, stallion, ram and dog.75

Transport for carrying agricultural products: Two types of carriers, viz ana– sa (carts) and sƒakat.a (wagon) were for commercial types. The former was two-wheeled, made of woods of Acacia and Dalbergia with bamboo poles and wheels rimmed with metal tyre (pavi). The latter was also wooden body and especially meant for carrying agricultural products from the field. The chariots, in addition to those two were used for carrying agricultural products from the field. Animals employed for drawing these carriers were ox, stallion, ram and dog.75

An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.   

An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.   

== References ==

== References ==

<references />

<references />