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== Subject Matter of the Sutra Charanas ==

== The Four Sutra Charanas ==

The sutra charanas portray different facets of social life and customs of people. People attained a high degree of culture long before the Sutra works came into existence as seen from the Brahmana works.  

The sutra charanas portray different facets of social life and customs of people. People attained a high degree of culture long before the Sutra works came into existence as seen from the Brahmana works.  

=== Brief Information about the Sutracharanas ===

=== Brief Information about the Sutracharanas ===

Measurements were based on the performer and not standardized. The Shrauta yajnas involve vedis or kundas into which the tretagnis are kindled. They are in simple circular, semi-circular and rectangular shapes. These examples show that the purpose for which the geometry got developed in the context of construction and transformation of planar figures. These texts shed light from the viewpoint of development of mathematics in the antiquity, particularly the use of arithmetic, algebra besides geometry. The different chitis not only speak of aesthetic sense, but also of creativity and ingenuity of the authors of Sulbasutras to work with several constraints both in terms of area and volume.<ref>Prof. K. Ramasubramaniam's Lectures - ''Vedas and Sulbasutras, Parts 1 and 2''</ref>

Measurements were based on the performer and not standardized. The Shrauta yajnas involve vedis or kundas into which the tretagnis are kindled. They are in simple circular, semi-circular and rectangular shapes. These examples show that the purpose for which the geometry got developed in the context of construction and transformation of planar figures. These texts shed light from the viewpoint of development of mathematics in the antiquity, particularly the use of arithmetic, algebra besides geometry. The different chitis not only speak of aesthetic sense, but also of creativity and ingenuity of the authors of Sulbasutras to work with several constraints both in terms of area and volume.<ref>Prof. K. Ramasubramaniam's Lectures - ''Vedas and Sulbasutras, Parts 1 and 2''</ref>

=== Economic Life ===

== Subject Matter of the Sutras ==

As there was great progress in the departments of human knowledge during the sutra period, the scope of their economic activities had extended beyond agriculture and cattle rearing. In these texts we find expansion of the cultural and economic scopes leading to new occupations and branching out into new spheres of life. The services of teachers, administrators, physicians, singers, dancers, fishermen, hunters, barbers, washermen, cattle herdsmen, astrologers, messengers, medicants, butchers, boatmen, and distillers are alluded to in these texts. A few points of importance regarding the various aspects of economic life are summarized below.<ref name=":0" />

In this section the general subject matter of the Sutracharanas are described. While the social organization, the [[Ashrama Dharma (आश्रमधर्मः)|ashramas]] and [[Varna Dharma (वर्णधर्मः)|varnas]], their roles, function, and inter-relationship between [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varnaashrama dharmas]] are described extensively in these texts, other aspects such as administration, finance, arts, agriculture and cattle breeding, land system, occupations, sciences witnessed further progress during the time of Sutra composition. The advance of technical skill in all branches of arts, crafts, and sciences rendered it almost impossible for an average man to acquire proficiency in every branch of these subjects. For instance, smithery which was a single occupation in earlier times branched off into many occupations in later times; it may be pointed out that the number of occupations mentioned in the Sutras exceeds fifty.<ref name=":0" />

 

As there was great progress in the departments of human knowledge during the sutra period, the scope of their economic activities had extended beyond agriculture and cattle rearing. In these texts we find expansion of the cultural and economic scopes leading to new occupations and branching out into new spheres of life. The services of teachers, administrators, physicians, singers, dancers, fishermen, hunters, barbers, washermen, cattle herdsmen, astrologers, messengers, medicants, butchers, boatmen, and distillers are alluded to in these texts. While the varna and ashrama systems are discussed in detail in other articles, here a few points of importance regarding the special aspects of economic life are summarized.<ref name=":0" />

==== Occupations ====

==== Varna System ====

Occupations were associated with varnas. According to the Dharmasutras, Brahmanas (Brahmins) were to practice the occupation of teaching and practicing Vedas, and included the rtviks (priests) and purohits. Kshatriyas were involved in administration, military service and strategy. Trade and commerce, agriculture and cattle rearing were associated with the Vaishya varna. Shudras were involved in carpentry, fishing, hunting, and service to other varna people in various capacities.  Baudhayana Dharmasutras (1.10) and other texts discuss the topics related to occupation extensively. Here the Gautama Dharmasutra<ref name=":6" />definitions of various varnas are alluded to as an example. <blockquote>ब्राह्मनस्याधिकाः प्रवचनयाजनप्रतिग्रहाः ॥२॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.2)</blockquote><blockquote>राज्ञोऽधिकं रक्षणं सर्वभूतानाम् ॥७॥ न्याय्यदण्डत्वम् ॥८॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.7, 8)</blockquote><blockquote>वैश्यस्याधिकं कृषिवणिक्पाशुपाल्यकुसीदम् ॥४९ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.49)</blockquote><blockquote>तेभ्यो वृत्तिं लिप्सेत ॥५७ ॥ शिल्पवृत्तिश् च ॥६० (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.58-59)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Summary: Teaching, officiating during yajnas, and receiving danas (gifts) pertain to Brahmanas. To a Raja (kshtriya) pertains the protection of all creatures, justice, punishment. A vaishya, in addition, relates to agriculture, trade, cattle breeding, and money lending for interest. A shudra may seek livelihood from other varna people, and by working as artisans.  

Occupational activities defined by [[Varna Dharma (वर्णधर्मः)|varna dharmas]] were associated with the four varnas that people were born into and followed as a rule in the earlier times. According to the Dharmasutras, Brahmanas (Brahmins) were to practice the occupation of teaching and practicing Vedas, and included the rtviks (priests) and purohits. Kshatriyas were involved in administration, military service and strategy. Trade and commerce, agriculture and cattle rearing were associated with the Vaishya varna. Shudras were involved in carpentry, fishing, hunting, and service to other varna people in various capacities.  Baudhayana Dharmasutras (1.10) and other texts discuss the topics related to varnas and their activities extensively. Here the Gautama Dharmasutra<ref name=":6" />defined activities of various varnas are alluded to as an example. <blockquote>ब्राह्मनस्याधिकाः प्रवचनयाजनप्रतिग्रहाः ॥२॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.2)</blockquote><blockquote>राज्ञोऽधिकं रक्षणं सर्वभूतानाम् ॥७॥ न्याय्यदण्डत्वम् ॥८॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.7, 8)</blockquote><blockquote>वैश्यस्याधिकं कृषिवणिक्पाशुपाल्यकुसीदम् ॥४९ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.49)</blockquote><blockquote>तेभ्यो वृत्तिं लिप्सेत ॥५७ ॥ शिल्पवृत्तिश् च ॥६० (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.58-59)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Summary: Teaching, officiating during yajnas, and receiving danas (gifts) pertain to Brahmanas. To a Raja (kshtriya) pertains the protection of all creatures, justice, punishment. A vaishya, in addition, relates to agriculture, trade, cattle breeding, and money lending for interest. A shudra may seek livelihood from other varna people, and by working as artisans.  

A few other related points include the following

A few other related points include the following

* Baudhayana Shrautasutras (15.16) अथैतान्नखकृतः सँ शास्त्यपरिमितान्यष्टमानि कुरुते..। <ref name=":1" /> further mention about making articles of leather or leather receptacles for storing ghee, honey, rice, flattened rice, barley, flours of different grains and seeds, this indicates that leather industry was well developed during that time.   

* Baudhayana Shrautasutras (15.16) अथैतान्नखकृतः सँ शास्त्यपरिमितान्यष्टमानि कुरुते..। <ref name=":1" /> further mention about making articles of leather or leather receptacles for storing ghee, honey, rice, flattened rice, barley, flours of different grains and seeds, this indicates that leather industry was well developed during that time.   

* Paraskara Grhyasutras (2.5.17-20) mention specifically about the Uttariya (upper garment) made of Ajina (animal hide), i.e., the upper garment of a Upanayana student should be made of animal hide. A Brahmin student's garment should be made of the skin of an antelope; that of a Kshatriya student should be made of the skin of a spotted deer; and that of a Vaisya student should be made of a goat's skin or a cow's skin.<ref>Bakhre, Mahadeva Gangadhar, (1982 Second Edition) ''Grihya-Sutra by Paraskar with the commentaries of Karka Upadhyaya, Jayaram, Harihar, Gadadhar and Vishvanath.'' New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (Page 220 - 224)</ref> Animal skins had special sanctity during the performance of yajnas.  

* Paraskara Grhyasutras (2.5.17-20) mention specifically about the Uttariya (upper garment) made of Ajina (animal hide), i.e., the upper garment of a Upanayana student should be made of animal hide. A Brahmin student's garment should be made of the skin of an antelope; that of a Kshatriya student should be made of the skin of a spotted deer; and that of a Vaisya student should be made of a goat's skin or a cow's skin.<ref>Bakhre, Mahadeva Gangadhar, (1982 Second Edition) ''Grihya-Sutra by Paraskar with the commentaries of Karka Upadhyaya, Jayaram, Harihar, Gadadhar and Vishvanath.'' New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (Page 220 - 224)</ref> Animal skins had special sanctity during the performance of yajnas.  

<blockquote>ऐणेयमजिनमुत्तरीयं ब्राह्मणस्य १७ रौरवं राजन्यस्य १८ आजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य १९ सर्वेषां वा गव्यमसति प्रधानत्वात् २० (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 2.5.17-20)<ref>Paraskara Grhya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>ऐणेयमजिनमुत्तरीयं ब्राह्मणस्य १७ रौरवं राजन्यस्य १८ आजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य १९ सर्वेषां वा गव्यमसति प्रधानत्वात् २० (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 2.5.17-20)<ref name=":7">Paraskara Grhya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>

==== Trade and Commerce ====

==== Trade and Commerce ====

==== Transport and Communication ====

==== Transport and Communication ====

Economic lifestyle in the Sutra period was well developed and so was trade and transport. Animal drawn carriages were the chief modes of transport on land; horses, camels, elephants, mules, bulls, asses and donkeys where the animals widely used for such travel. Wheel was invented and was very much in use in that time. Chariots were the most popular vehicles and people were skilled in building many kinds of chariots.  

Economic lifestyle in the Sutra period was well developed and so was trade and transport. Animal drawn carriages were the chief modes of transport on land; horses, camels, elephants, mules, bulls, asses and donkeys where the animals widely used for such travel. Wheel was invented and was very much in use in that time. Chariots were the most popular vehicles and people were skilled in building many kinds of chariots. The measurements of a chariot have been mentioned in Apastamba Shulbasutras. Loads were carried on carts drawn by bullocks. Paraskara Grhyasutra devotes whole chapters to the ceremonies of mounting a chariot (रथारोहणम् । Ratharohana) and an elephant, and it is laid down here that a woman or brahmachari should not act as a charioteer.  <blockquote>न स्त्रीब्रह्मचारिणौ सारथी स्याताम् ९ (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 3.14.9)<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>Rivers were crossed by means of boats and samkramas (causeway) was made across rivers or inundated land. Many grhyasutras lay down the rule that certain mantras should be recited at time of boarding and crossing a river.<ref name=":0" />

Rivers were crossed by means of boats and samkramas (causeway) was made across rivers or inundated land. Many grhyasutras lay down the rule that certain mantras should be recited at time of boarding and crossing a river.<ref name=":0" />

It is heartening to note that the Archeological Survey of India excavations in Sanauli in 2018 have brought to light evidence that Bharatavarsha had developed sophisticated chariots long before many other civilizations.

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Vedangas]]

[[Category:Vedangas]]

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