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Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्) (view source)
Revision as of 22:23, 16 February 2020
, 22:23, 16 February 2020→Agriculture
=== Economic Life ===
=== Economic Life ===
As there was great progress in the departments of human knowledge during the sutra period, the scope of their economic activities had extended beyond agriculture and cattle rearing. In these texts we find expansion of the cultural and economic scopes leading to new occupations and branching out into new spheres of life. A few points of importance regarding the various aspects of economic life are summarized below.
As there was great progress in the departments of human knowledge during the sutra period, the scope of their economic activities had extended beyond agriculture and cattle rearing. In these texts we find expansion of the cultural and economic scopes leading to new occupations and branching out into new spheres of life. The services of teachers, administrators, physicians, singers, dancers, fishermen, hunters, barbers, washermen, cattle herdsmen, astrologers, messengers, medicants, butchers, boatmen, and distillers are alluded to in these texts. A few points of importance regarding the various aspects of economic life are summarized below.<ref name=":0" />
==== Occupations ====
==== Occupations ====
==== Agriculture ====
==== Agriculture ====
The most popular occupation of the Sutra period a bulk of ancient Bharatiya economy depended upon agriculture. Though it was regarded as the normal occupation of the Vaishyas, people of all varnas practiced it. The Shrauta and Grhyasutras attach great importance to agriculture and we see a number of ceremonies connected with agricultural operations in these texts. Land ownership laws, dispute resolution, share of produce, land leasing, river, canal and well irrigation systems were all well defined. Sita yajna, performed at the time of the first ploughing of the land, and many such rituals to be performed at the time of sowing the crop are described in the Grhyasutras. Kaushika SS 24, 1-2; Katha GS 71, 8.
The most popular occupation of the Sutra period a bulk of ancient Bharatiya economy depended upon agriculture. Though it was regarded as the normal occupation of the Vaishyas, people of all varnas practiced it. The Shrauta and Grhyasutras attach great importance to agriculture and we see a number of ceremonies connected with agricultural operations in these texts. Land ownership laws, dispute resolution, share of produce, land leasing, river, canal and well irrigation systems were all well defined. Sita yajna, performed at the time of the first ploughing of the land, and many such rituals to be performed at the time of sowing the crop are described in the Grhyasutras. <blockquote>घृतेन सीतेति सीतायज्ञस्य ७ या ओषधय इति बीजवपनीयस्य ८ (Kath. Grhy. Sutr. 71. 7-8)<ref>Kathaka Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Cultivation of soil was undoubtedly dependent on rains to a great extent and the system is more or less similar to the one that is seen in the present day. The sutras frequently refer to rituals for procuring good rains. The sutra अनूषरमविवदिष्णु भूम २ । (Asvh. Grhy. Sutr. 2.7.2)<ref>Ashvalayana Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref> clearly lays down that a house should be built on an indisputable plot of land. Farmers were generally required to pay one-sixth of the agricultural produce as land-revenue to the king.
Cultivation of soil was undoubtedly dependent on rains to a great extent and the system is more or less similar to the one that is seen in the present day. The sutras frequently refer to rituals for procuring good rains. The Asv. GS (2.7.2) clearly lays down that a house should be built on an indisputable plot of land. Farmers were generally required to pay one-sixth of the agricultural produce as land-revenue to the king.
==== Animal Husbandry ====
==== Animal Husbandry ====
==== Handicrafts ====
==== Handicrafts ====
Several handicrafts, such as pottery, carpentry, metal-work, jewellery, weaving, leather-work, and glass-work were common in the sutra period, practiced on cottage industry basis. Carpenters, the indispensable artisans for society, made ploughs, carts, household furniture and chariots. Chariot making was extremely important and such skilled persons were highly distinguished forming a separate class of people from carpenters. Jewellery and ornament making was highly developed in the sutra period. To work for the raja one day a month without wages was the usual form of tax which the handicraftsmen were required to pay to the State.
Several handicrafts, such as pottery, carpentry, metal-work, jewellery, weaving, leather-work, and glass-work were common in the sutra period, practiced on cottage industry basis. Carpenters, the indispensable artisans for society, made ploughs, carts, household furniture and chariots. Chariot making was extremely important and such skilled persons were highly distinguished forming a separate class of people from carpenters. Jewellery and ornament making was highly developed in the sutra period. We find many references to workers in stone, needlework, ropemaking, and basketmaking in the sutra texts. To work for the raja one day a month without wages was the usual form of tax which the handicraftsmen were required to pay to the State.
* Baudh SS 15.14 mentions that potters were invited and instructed by the Maharaja to manufacture bricks, big and small cooking vessels required for the performance of Ashvamedha yajna.
* Baudh SS 15.14 mentions that potters were invited and instructed by the Maharaja to manufacture bricks, big and small cooking vessels required for the performance of Ashvamedha yajna.
* Baudh SS 15. 13-14 mentions chariot-makers as distinct from carpenters and lays down that carpenters are instructed to make yupas for the yajnas (long posts to tie the animals), wooden vessels (used during the yajnas), carts, seating places, etc and that chariot-makers are instructed to manufacture chariots only.
* Baudh SS 15. 13-14 mentions chariot-makers as distinct from carpenters and lays down that carpenters are instructed to make yupas for the yajnas (long posts to tie the animals), wooden vessels (used during the yajnas), carts, seating places, etc and that chariot-makers are instructed to manufacture chariots only.
* Baudh SS 15.13 mentions about blacksmiths and goldsmiths separately. Goldsmiths generally make ornaments of gold and silver, while blacksmiths manufactured articles of iron, copper, and bell-metal. Manufacture of war weapons, tools for agriculture, carpentry apart from household requirements were prepared by blacksmiths. Gobhil GS mentions a vessal made of bell-metal and the Asv GS mentions vessels made of copper, metal, stone and clay. (19th reference).
* Baudh SS 15.13 mentions about blacksmiths and goldsmiths separately. Goldsmiths generally make ornaments of gold and silver, while blacksmiths manufactured articles of iron, copper, and bell-metal. Manufacture of war weapons, tools for agriculture, carpentry apart from household requirements were prepared by blacksmiths. Gobhil GS mentions a vessal made of bell-metal and the Asv GS mentions vessels made of copper, metal, stone and clay. (19th reference).
* The use of mirror is frequently prescribed in the Sutras. A mirror is presented to the bride at the time of marriage and was also used during performance of tonsure and Simantonnayana. Ornaments of glass are also mentioned in Srautasutras.
* The use of mirror is frequently prescribed in the Sutras. A mirror is presented to the bride at the time of marriage and was also used during performance of tonsure and Simantonnayana. Ornaments of glass are also mentioned in Srautasutras.
* Weaving was a flourishing industry and the sutra texts mention numerous varieties of clothes. Cotton, wool, hemp and flax were generally used for weaving cloth. Though the entire process of preparation of clothes is not mentioned in the Sutras, Paraskara's reference to a full spindle shows that yarn was spun with a charkha.
* Baudh S S 15, 14 mentions about making articles of leather, this indicates that leather industry was well developed during that time. Parask. 2.5.17-19 mentions specifically about Ajina, the upper garment of a Upanayana student should be made of animal hide. A Brahmin student's garment should be made of the skin of an antelope; that of a Kshatriya student should be made of the skin of a spotted deer; and that of a Vaisya student should be made of a goat's skin or a cow's skin. Animal skins had special sanctity during the performance of yajnas.
==== Trade and Commerce ====
Trade was no doubt an important occupation of the Sutra period. The first three varnas, the dvijas, are allowed by the Dharmasutras to practice trade. Cereals, livestock, cloth, wool, liquors, herbs, metals, hides, salt, wood, agricultural implements, ropes, utensils, condiments, jewellery, perfumes, pepper, and arms were the main articles of trade. The sale of cooked food is also referred to in the Sutras. Asv Grh 4.4,15. Vas.DS 4.15, Gaut DS 7,19. Haggling over the price of Soma is referred to in the Kat. SS (7.8.1-12)
However, the Brahmanas were prohibited to trade in bulls, horses, cows, perfumes, prepared food, sesamum, skins, medicines flesh, honey, grass, and other things. 28 Like agricultural rites, Sutras prescribe certain rites for those who desire to gain success in trade. 29 Page 140. A rite for successful business trip is mentioned in Kausika Sutra (42, 1-5)
Trade in exchange for commodities was prevalent as was purchasing them for money. Sea voyages and travel to distant places to promote trade and commerce are described in the Sutra granthas Baudh DS (1.1.2.4) refers to travel overseas undertaken by the Northerners.
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