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Jīva (Samskrit: जीवः), literally means a living being, in Indian thought is a technical term closest to what is called “person” in contemporary psychology and is commonly conceived as a knower (jñātā), enjoyer/sufferer (bhoktā), and agent (kartā). Jiva is studied in various dimensions such as biological, physiological, intellectual, psychological and metaphysical levels. A Jiva has a distinct psychological identity different from the concepts of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|purusha]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|brahman]] simply because of the vrittis of the manas and the buddhi, both of which are unique to him, a human being. Human motives, attitudes and aptitudes, desires, wishes and longings, which are also sources of behavior, have roots beyond physiological factors. In addition to the psycho-physical side, humans have a psycho-spiritual side. Human functioning is a product of the two and not an exclusive outcome of one or the other. <ref name=":14" />  

Jiva (Samskrit: जीवः), literally means a living being, in Indian philosophical thought it is a technical term closest to what is called “person” in contemporary psychology. It is commonly conceived as a knower (jñātā), enjoyer/sufferer (bhoktā), and agent (kartā). Jiva is studied in various dimensions such as biological, physiological, intellectual, psychological and metaphysical levels. A Jiva has a distinct psychological identity different from the concepts of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|purusha]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|brahman]] simply because of the vrittis of the manas and the buddhi, both of which are unique to him, a human being. Human motives, attitudes and aptitudes, desires, wishes and longings, which are also sources of behavior, have roots beyond physiological factors. In addition to the psycho-physical side, humans have a psycho-spiritual side. Human functioning is a product of the two and not an exclusive outcome of one or the other. <ref name=":14" />  

== Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

In the Upanishads, we find that in the [[Indian Concept of Self|Indian concept self]], the ātman appears to be closely associated with the concepts of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|purusha]] and jiva variously designating the individual person. Sometimes the term ātman is used in conjunction with other words that indicate the main features of the person:<ref name=":0">Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Chapter 5: Self, Person, and Personality)</ref>

In the Upanishads, we find that in the [[Indian Concept of Self|Indian concept self]], the ātman appears to be closely associated with the concepts of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|purusha]] and jiva variously designating the individual person. Sometimes the term ātman is used in conjunction with other words that indicate the main features of the person:<ref name=":0">Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Chapter 5: Self, Person, and Personality)</ref>

The Chāndogya Upanishad, uses the term jīva to designate a human being as an integral part of the cosmic order.<ref name=":0" /> A human being is not merely confined to the appearance it projects, that is, the physical contours and aspects of the body. It is a collection of three bodies (sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) encompassing the gross elements to the subtle layers of the mind (panchakoshas) that act as encasements for the true Self. The Taittiriya Upanishad presents the Vedic conceptualization of the mind-body complex, i.e., jiva. Put differently, a human being is defined based on the mind-body complex, which is not distinct, and exists on a continuum from gross to subtle levels.<ref name=":4">Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref>

The Chāndogya Upanishad, uses the term jīva to designate a human being as an integral part of the cosmic order.<ref name=":0" /> A human being is not merely confined to the appearance it projects, that is, the physical contours and aspects of the body. It is a collection of three bodies (sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) encompassing the gross elements to the subtle layers of the mind (panchakoshas) that act as encasements for the true Self. The Taittiriya Upanishad presents the Vedic conceptualization of the mind-body complex, i.e., jiva. Put differently, a human being is defined based on the mind-body complex, which is not distinct, and exists on a continuum from gross to subtle levels.<ref name=":4">Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref>

== Etymology ==

== व्युतपत्तिः ॥ Etymology ==

According to the Dhatupatha of Maharshi Panini, Jiva (जीव) is used in the sense of प्राणधारणे । bearing life. Thus all living beings are called Jivas, having the six characteristics (shad-bhavavikaras) including being born, growth etc.  

According to the Dhatupatha of Maharshi Panini, Jiva (जीव) is used in the sense of प्राणधारणे । bearing life. Thus all living beings are called Jivas, having the six characteristics (shad-bhavavikaras) such as being born, growth etc.  

In the Darshana shastras,<ref name=":6" /> Jiva is described as Vibhu (विभुः) or all pervading by the Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Yoga and Advaita Vedanta philosophies, while Ramanujacharya and others describe Jiva to be of the size of Anu (अणुप्ररिमाण) or of atomic size.<blockquote>स च जीवो विभुरिति साङ्ख्यनैयायिकवैशेषिकपातञ्जलवेदान्तिनः । अणुप्ररिमाण इति रामानुजादयः । Vachaspatyam <ref name=":6">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha/#word=jeeva&mode=direct</ref></blockquote>In the Shabdakalpadhruma,<ref name=":6" /> the following shlokas about defining Jiva are mentioned from Brahmavaivarta Purana

In the Darshana shastras,<ref name=":6" /> Jiva is described as Vibhu (विभुः) or all pervading by the Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Yoga and Advaita Vedanta philosophies, while Ramanujacharya and others describe Jiva to be of the size of Anu (अणुप्ररिमाण) or of atomic size.<blockquote>स च जीवो विभुरिति साङ्ख्यनैयायिकवैशेषिकपातञ्जलवेदान्तिनः । अणुप्ररिमाण इति रामानुजादयः । Vachaspatyam <ref name=":6">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha/#word=jeeva&mode=direct</ref></blockquote>In the Shabdakalpadhruma,<ref name=":6" /> the following shlokas defining Jiva are mentioned from Brahmavaivarta Purana

जीवः कर्मफलं भुङ्क्ते आत्मा निर्लिप्त एव च ।। १३ ।। आत्मनः प्रतिबिम्बं च देही जीवः स एव च ।। पाञ्चभौतिकरूपश्च देहो नश्वर एव च।।१४।।  प्राणदेहादिभृद्यो हि स जीवः परिकीर्त्तितः।।२२।।

जीवः कर्मफलं भुङ्क्ते आत्मा निर्लिप्त एव च ।। १३ ।। आत्मनः प्रतिबिम्बं च देही जीवः स एव च ।। पाञ्चभौतिकरूपश्च देहो नश्वर एव च।।१४।।  प्राणदेहादिभृद्यो हि स जीवः परिकीर्त्तितः।।२२।।

== Jiva in Various Texts ==

== Jiva in Various Texts ==

=== Rigveda ===

=== Ishvara and Jiva ॥ Rigveda ===

The concept of death and punarjanma (rebirth) is found to be expressed in the Rigveda (5.1.16). And the words which denote soul in the Rig Veda are manas, atman and asu according to Dr. S. N. Dasgupta. These are the foundational thoughts which developed later into siddhantas in the darshana shastras and came to represent the transcendental concept in the Upanishads. Earlier texts discussed consciousness as a unit of "collective selves" of the beings which later came to be attributed to the "individual self." In the Rigveda, the rudimentary tattvas corresponding to both Advaita and Dvaita siddhantas are described. Dyava-prthvi originated from the One Supreme Paramatma, yet the same one entity became many-fold in beings and matter as the reflection of Paramatma, applying the analogy of Bimba- pratibimba (reflection of one into many), owing to Maya. Thus, the Vedas propound both the unity of Ishvara and Jiva and the existence of difference between them.<ref>Raily, Payal. (2005) Ph.D Thesis: ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/134115 Vaidika Parampara evam Sankara Vedanta ke Sandarbh Mein Atma Ki Avadharana.]'' Chandigarh: Panjab University. (Chapter 1)</ref> The famous mantra in Rigveda poetically and esoterically depicts the relationship of Jivatma and Paramatma in a profound way.<blockquote>द्वा सुपर्णा सयुजा सखाया समानं वृक्षं परि षस्वजाते । तयोरन्यः पिप्पलं स्वाद्वत्त्यनश्नन्नन्यो अभि चाकशीति ॥२०॥ (1.164.20)</blockquote>Summary- Two birds of beautiful plumage, who are inseparable friends, reside on the same tree. Of these, one relishes and eats the fruits of the tree while the other looks on without eating.  

The concept of death and punarjanma (rebirth) is found to be expressed in the Rigveda (5.1.16). And the words which denote soul in the Rig Veda are manas, atman and asu according to Dr. S. N. Dasgupta. These are the foundational thoughts which developed later into siddhantas in the darshana shastras and came to represent the transcendental concept in the Upanishads. Earlier texts discussed consciousness as a unit of "collective selves" of the beings which later came to be attributed to the "individual self." In the Rigveda, the rudimentary tattvas corresponding to both Advaita and Dvaita siddhantas are described. Dyava-prthvi originated from the One Supreme Paramatma, yet the same one entity became many-fold in beings and matter as the reflection of Paramatma, applying the analogy of Bimba- pratibimba (reflection of one into many), owing to Maya. Thus, the Vedas propound both the unity of Ishvara and Jiva and the existence of a difference between them.<ref name=":8">Raily, Payal. (2005) Ph.D Thesis: ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/134115 Vaidika Parampara evam Sankara Vedanta ke Sandarbh Mein Atma Ki Avadharana.]'' Chandigarh: Panjab University. (Chapter 1)</ref> The famous mantra in Rigveda poetically and esoterically depicts the relationship of Jivatma and Paramatma in a profound way.<blockquote>द्वा सुपर्णा सयुजा सखाया समानं वृक्षं परि षस्वजाते । तयोरन्यः पिप्पलं स्वाद्वत्त्यनश्नन्नन्यो अभि चाकशीति ॥२०॥ (1.164.20)</blockquote>Summary- Two birds of beautiful plumage, who are inseparable friends, reside on the same tree. Of these, one relishes and eats the fruits of the tree while the other looks on without eating.  

The two birds referred to in this highly poetic passage are the individual soul (Jiva) and the Supreme Soul (Paramatman). They are said to be inseparable friends, as the Advaitins would interpret the passage, the Jiva is only an image of the Paramatman thrown upon the mind; or, the Dvaitins may interpret it in the dualistic sense, as the relationship of love existing between God and the soul, and the dependence of the latter on the former, are eternal. The fruits of the tree are the results of one’s Karma, or past actions, which are performed with the help of the body. Out of attachment the individual soul clings to these fruits of actions, and suffers the consequences, good as well as bad, in successive embodiments ; but the Lord, its companion bird on the tree of this body, remains non-attached to actions and their fruits, being the mere witness of this cosmic play.<ref>Swami Tyagisananda, trans (1949) ''Svetavataraopanisad''. Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math. (Pages 82 - 83)</ref>

The two birds referred to in this highly poetic passage are the individual soul (Jiva) and the Supreme Soul (Paramatman). They are said to be inseparable friends, as the Advaitins would interpret the passage, the Jiva is only an image of the Paramatman thrown upon the mind; or, the Dvaitins may interpret it in the dualistic sense, as the relationship of love existing between God and the soul, and the dependence of the latter on the former, are eternal. The fruits of the tree are the results of one’s Karma, or past actions, which are performed with the help of the body. Out of attachment the individual soul clings to these fruits of actions, and suffers the consequences, good as well as bad, in successive embodiments ; but the Lord, its companion bird on the tree of this body, remains non-attached to actions and their fruits, being the mere witness of this cosmic play.<ref>Swami Tyagisananda, trans (1949) ''Svetavataraopanisad''. Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math. (Pages 82 - 83)</ref>

=== Jiva and Advaita Siddhanta ===

=== Characteristics of Jiva ॥ Jiva in Upanishads ===

 

 

The body devoid of life force (Jiva) undergoes death and not the Jivatma. Kathopanishad expounds that the intellectual form of Jivatma is neither born nor dies. One that is never born, which is always present and exists does not perish when the physical body disintegrates.<blockquote>न जायते म्रियते वा विपश्विन्नायं कुतश्चिन्न बभूवकश्रित। अजो नित्यं शाश्चतोऽयं पुराणो न हन्यमानो शरीरे।। (Kath. Upan. 1.2.17)</blockquote>Jivatma is described as the eternal consciousness, and is a hence called a knower.<ref name=":8" />

 

=== जीवब्रह्मैक्यं ॥ Goal of Jiva in Advaita Siddhanta ===

Panchadasi by Swami Vidyaranya outlines the concept of Jiva as presented in the Advaita Siddhanta.

Panchadasi by Swami Vidyaranya outlines the concept of Jiva as presented in the Advaita Siddhanta.

The goal of a Jiva as per Advaita Vedanta can be summarized as follows from Vedantasara<ref>Swami Nikhilananda. trans. (1931) ''Vedantasara of Sadananda, With Introduction, Text, English Translation and Comments.'' Almora: Advaita Ashram (Page 16)</ref><blockquote>विषयः जीवब्रह्मैक्यं शुद्धचैतन्यं प्रमेयं तत्र एव वेदान्तानां तात्पर्यात् ॥ २७॥ (Veda. Sara. 27)<ref>Vedantasara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83 Full text])</ref></blockquote>The subject (of vedanta) is the identity of Jiva and Brahman, which is of the nature of Pure Intelligence and is to be realized.  

The goal of a Jiva as per Advaita Vedanta can be summarized as follows from Vedantasara<ref>Swami Nikhilananda. trans. (1931) ''Vedantasara of Sadananda, With Introduction, Text, English Translation and Comments.'' Almora: Advaita Ashram (Page 16)</ref><blockquote>विषयः जीवब्रह्मैक्यं शुद्धचैतन्यं प्रमेयं तत्र एव वेदान्तानां तात्पर्यात् ॥ २७॥ (Veda. Sara. 27)<ref>Vedantasara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83 Full text])</ref></blockquote>The subject (of vedanta) is the identity of Jiva and Brahman, which is of the nature of Pure Intelligence and is to be realized.  

=== Jiva in Dvaita Siddhanta ===

=== जीवगणाः हरेरनुचराः ॥ Jivas and Lord Vishnu in Dvaita Siddhanta ===

Madhavacharya's Dvaita philosophy considers the Jiva to be a real entity unlike the Advaita philisophy. The Dvaita philosophy advocates two cardinal doctrines about Jivas.<ref>Kulkarni, Savita R. ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/96234 Sankara and Madhva on the Kathaka upanisad a comparative study.]'' (2001) Karnatak University. (Chapter 2: Salient Features of Advaita and Dvaita Vedanta)</ref>

Madhavacharya's Dvaita philosophy considers the Jiva to be a real entity unlike the Advaita philisophy. According to Dvaita, Lord Vishnu is the all-knowing and possessed of all adequate and unrestricted powers in regard to the chit and achit (sentient and insentient reals) which are of different nature from Him. It asserts that the Jiva and Atman are real and are not identical.

 

'''Nature of Jivas''' - The Dvaita philosophy advocates two cardinal doctrines about Jivas along with the basis of Bheda which is another fundamental concept explaining the material world and its relationship with Jiva and Brahman.<ref name=":9">Kulkarni, Savita R. ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/96234 Sankara and Madhva on the Kathaka upanisad a comparative study.]'' (2001) Karnatak University. (Chapter 2: Salient Features of Advaita and Dvaita Vedanta)</ref>

 

 

 

 

 

# जीवगणाः हरेरनुचराः - The manifold embodied souls are all dependent on Lord Visnu

Dvaita philosophy has its fruition in the religious realisation of God and the attainment of Visnuloka. Though mukti is freedom from the ills of samsara, there are differences in the enjoyment of the bliss of Brahman, determined by the peculiarity of each jiva. The idea that mukti connotes the identity of the jiva and Brahman or similarity between the two is opposed to the eternal difference between the creator and the creature. The means of attaining mukti includes physical, moral and spiritual disciplines based on the Upanisadic injunctions of sravana, manana and nididhyasana. They have their consummation in bhakti which has its completion in divine grace.<ref name=":10" />

# जीवगणाः नीचोच्चभावं गताः - The embodied souls are inherently graded as higher and lower (mainly three-fold)

=== Jiva in Visishtadvaita Siddhanta ===

=== Jiva in Visishtadvaita Siddhanta ===

Shri. Ramanujacharya's Visishtadvaita siddhanta, asserts that the ''self'' (Atman or conciousness-as-such) is different from the body-mind-sense complex and that it is real and eternal. While Advaita advocates the identity and unity of Atman and Brahman, Ramanujacharya emphasizes that the relationship between the ''self'' (Jivasakshin in Advaita) and Brahman is not that of identity. Any assertion of such absolute identity amounts to complete ignorance of the individual person according to this siddhanta. Inasmuch as pain and pleasure afflict different persons differently, he asserts, there must be different ''selves'' among different individuals. Though the self is similar to Brahman, it is not the same because the latter comprises of all the ''selves'' collectively. The all encompassing Brahman, the one Supreme Reality, comprises of all the individual ''selves'' as well as the material objects in the universe, which are equally real. The ''selves'' and the material things are related to Brahman as attributes to a substance. Ramanujacharya agrees that the individual selves suffer limitations due to ignorance and lack of correct knowledge (Avidya). Brahman is identified with God. The self in the person is neither independent of nor identical with God. It is a manifestation and transformation of God. The self is the subject as well as the object of knowing. Consciousness, however, is not the same as the self. <ref name=":0" />

Shri. Ramanujacharya's Visishtadvaita siddhanta, asserts that the ''self'' (Atman or consciousness-as-such) is different from the body-mind-sense complex and that it is real and eternal. While Advaita advocates the identity and unity of Atman and Brahman, Ramanujacharya emphasizes that the relationship between the ''self'' (Jivasakshin in Advaita) and Brahman is not that of identity. Any assertion of such absolute identity amounts to complete ignorance of the individual person according to this siddhanta. Inasmuch as pain and pleasure afflict different persons differently, he asserts, there must be different ''selves'' among different individuals. Though the self is similar to Brahman, it is not the same because the latter comprises of all the ''selves'' collectively. The all encompassing Brahman, the one Supreme Reality, comprises of all the individual ''selves'' as well as the material objects in the universe, which are equally real. The ''selves'' and the material things are related to Brahman as attributes to a substance. Ramanujacharya agrees that the individual selves suffer limitations due to ignorance and lack of correct knowledge (Avidya). Brahman is identified with God. The self in the person is neither independent of nor identical with God. It is a manifestation and transformation of God. The self is the subject as well as the object of knowing. Consciousness, however, is not the same as the self. <ref name=":0" />

Visishtadvaitic psychology has a metaphysical basis, and refers to a plurality of eternal and immutable jivas having jnana as their essential attribute. The jiva is an atomic or infinitesimal entity, but its intelligence is infinite, though limited or circumscribed by karma. Selfhood is presupposed in the mental process consisting of cognitive, affective (moods, feelings and attitudes) and conative (pertaining to effort, endeavors or Karma) factors, and it alone gives meaning to the unity and continuity of the psychic complex in all its normal and abnormal states.<ref name=":7">Srinivasachari, P. N. (1943) ''The Philosophy of Visistadvaita''. Adyar: The Adyar Library (Pages 578 - 579)</ref>

Visishtadvaitic psychology has a metaphysical basis, and refers to a plurality of eternal and immutable jivas having jnana as their essential attribute. The jiva is an atomic or infinitesimal entity, but its intelligence is infinite, though limited or circumscribed by karma. Selfhood is presupposed in the mental process consisting of cognitive, affective (moods, feelings and attitudes) and conative (pertaining to effort, endeavors or Karma) factors, and it alone gives meaning to the unity and continuity of the psychic complex in all its normal and abnormal states.<ref name=":7">Srinivasachari, P. N. (1943) ''The Philosophy of Visistadvaita''. Adyar: The Adyar Library (Pages 578 - 579)</ref>

The Jiva is substance-attribute. As the logical self, it derives its substantiality from Brahman, and is called its aprthaksidda visesana, upadeya, and amsha. As the ethical self, the jiva has moral freedom but dedicates itself to the service of the Lord who is the Svami. As the aesthetic ego, it is made of beauty which is a joy for ever and which is imparted to it by the absolute beauty of Brahman. The atman derives its form and function <ref name=":7" />

The Jiva is substance-attribute. As the logical self, it derives its substantiality from Brahman, and is called its ''aprthaksidda visesana'', ''upadeya'', and ''amsha''. As the ethical self, the jiva has moral freedom but dedicates itself to the service of the Lord who is the Svami. As the aesthetic ego, it is made of beauty which is a joy for ever and which is imparted to it by the absolute beauty of Brahman. The atman derives its form and function from Brahman, depends on His redemptive will and exists for His aesthetic satisfaction, and is therefore His sharira. It is different from Brahman in the denotative aspect as it is a unique individual. <ref name=":7" />

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Vedanta]]

[[Category:Vedanta]]