Changes

= Defining Self =

= Defining Self =

===Western Tradition===

===Western Tradition===

Seminal contributions in defining selfhood came from the works of William James, C. H. Cooley, G. H. Mead, and Freud, whose ideas have continued to the revival in psychological studies of selfhood and related topics. Many other Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume, Leibniz, Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Skinner and later on Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg to name a few, denied or affirmed the existence of Self and proposed modern theories about self and knowledge. In the present article only those western perspectives which are similar to the Upanishadic concepts have been discussed as they pertain to the scope of the topic.<ref name=":22" />

Seminal contributions in defining selfhood came from the works of William James, C. H. Cooley, G. H. Mead, and Freud, whose ideas have continued to the revival in psychological studies of selfhood and related topics. Many other Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume, Leibniz, Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Skinner and later on Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg to name a few, denied or affirmed the existence of Self and proposed modern theories about self and knowledge. In the present article only those western perspectives which are similar to the Upanishadic concepts have been discussed as they pertain to the scope of the topic.<ref name=":22" />

===Indian Tradition===

===Indian Tradition===

Many Indian and Western scholars, in the recent decades have studied and presented the concept of self based on Indian perspectives given in the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]], [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varna and ashrama dharmas]], [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]], in the philosophical texts such as the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|shad-darshanas]], the Brahmasutras, the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], the Itihasas, the Puranas, and Tantras etc., all of which influence the Indian psychological make-up.<ref name=":08" />

Many Indian and Western scholars, in the recent decades have studied and presented the concept of self based on Indian perspectives given in the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]], [[Varnashrama Dharma (वर्णाश्रमधर्मः)|varna and ashrama dharmas]], [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|samskaras]], in the philosophical texts such as the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|shad-darshanas]], the Brahmasutras, the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], the Itihasas, the Puranas, and Tantras etc., all of which influence the Indian psychological make-up.<ref name=":08" />

#'''''self''''' (with a lower case "s" and italicized) at an individual level: ''consciousness'' as-such, at the level of the individual - without having the role of an agent (as purusha in Samkhya-Yoga), - in the role of a witness (as atman or sakshin in Vedanta).

#'''''self''''' (with a lower case "s" and italicized) at an individual level: ''consciousness'' as-such, at the level of the individual - without having the role of an agent (as purusha in Samkhya-Yoga), - in the role of a witness (as atman or sakshin in Vedanta).

#'''self''' (with a lower case "s") at the bodily level: A person who wills, acts and feels, the Jīva (empirical self) in Advaita. Jiva is embodied consciousness, whereas jiva-sākṣin (as in ''self'') is the witnessing ''consciousness''. The term “self” may be used in a general nonspecific sense to refer to self at all its levels, where a distinction is not warranted.

#'''self''' (with a lower case "s") at the bodily level: A person who wills, acts and feels, the Jīva (empirical self) in Advaita. Jiva is embodied consciousness, whereas jiva-sākṣin (as in ''self'') is the witnessing ''consciousness''. The term “self” may be used in a general nonspecific sense to refer to self at all its levels, where a distinction is not warranted.

==Jiva - A Composite of Sharira, Manas and Atman==

==Indian Concept of Self==

A human being is not merely confined to the appearance it projects, that is, the physical contours and aspects of the body. It is a collection of three bodies (sthula, sukshma and karana shariras) encompassing the gross elements to the subtle layers of the mind that act as encasements for the true Self. The Taittiriya Upanishad presents the Vedic conceptualization of the mind-body complex, i.e., jiva.<ref name=":4">Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref>

Jīva, which literally means a living being, is often used in Indian thought as a technical term that is the closest to what is called “person” in contemporary psychology. Jīva is often mentioned in several Upanishads.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 129 - 133)</ref>

===Metaphysical and Physical Self===

===Metaphysical and Physical Self===

In previous section we saw how the Jīva or the person, is a unique composite of consciousness, mind, and body.  A review of the study of self in India reveals that indeed the core of Indian ''self'' is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as psychologists. Thus we find a general agreement that the '''metaphysical ''self'', [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Atman_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) Atman]''', is the real Self and it is embodied in a biological or physical body of the composite '''[https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Jiva_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%83) Jiva (जीवः)]'''. This core distinction of Jiva from a mere human body is reflected in the treatment methods adopted in Ayurveda unlike those in modern medicine where a person is limited to a physical self.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":08" />

In previous section we saw how the Jīva or the person, is a unique composite of consciousness, mind, and body.  A review of the study of self in India reveals that indeed the core of Indian ''self'' is metaphysical, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as psychologists. Thus we find a general agreement that the '''metaphysical ''self'', [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]''', is the real Self and it is embodied in a biological or physical body of the composite '''Jiva (जीवः)'''. This core distinction of Jiva from a mere human body is reflected in the treatment methods adopted in Ayurveda unlike those in modern medicine where a person is limited to a physical self.<ref name=":14">Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Pages 5 - 9)</ref><ref name=":08" />

The unity of the person, despite constantly changing mental states and bodily conditions, is a function of the presence/reflection of Atman (''consciousness'' as-such). Here a distinction needs to be made between ''consciousnesses'' as-such identified as [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Brahman_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) Brahman], [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Atman_(%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D) Atman], or [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Purusha_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%83) Purusha], and awareness. ''Consciousness'' as-such is unchanging and ineffable. It is indeterminate and unqualified, and as such it takes no forms. In the context of cognitive activity, its role is no more than to reflect/illumine the form the mind takes in its interaction with the world through the sensory gateways. Awareness is the result of consciousness illuminating the forms the mind takes. The person whose mind acts through the bodily apparatus may be considered conditioned because of thought, passion, and action are biased and distorted by the conditions of the body. Only an unconditioned person can have the true reflections of consciousness as-such. The goal of the person is to reach such an unconditioned state.<ref name=":14" />

The unity of the person, despite constantly changing mental states and bodily conditions, is a function of the presence/reflection of Atman (''consciousness'' as-such). Here a distinction needs to be made between ''consciousnesses'' as-such identified as [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], or [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], and awareness. ''Consciousness'' as-such is unchanging and ineffable. It is indeterminate and unqualified, and as such it takes no forms. In the context of cognitive activity, its role is no more than to reflect/illumine the form the mind takes in its interaction with the world through the sensory gateways. Awareness is the result of consciousness illuminating the forms the mind takes. The person whose mind acts through the bodily apparatus may be considered conditioned because of thought, passion, and action are biased and distorted by the conditions of the body. Only an unconditioned person can have the true reflections of consciousness as-such. The goal of the person is to reach such an unconditioned state.<ref name=":14" />

===Psychological Self===

===Psychological Self===

Beyond the physical self exists the psychological self and further outside to it is the social self, and both these concepts are brimming with cultural constructions. For example, the varna system is an important part of Indian social self, which has relevance for the Indian population and the Indian Diaspora but little relevance for other cultures. The manas or mind, chitta, buddhi, ahankara etc., form the psychological constructs of the person and are critical in understanding the psyche of Indians.<ref name=":08" />

Beyond the physical self exists the psychological self and further outside to it is the social self, and both these concepts are brimming with cultural constructions. For example, the varna system is an important part of Indian social self, which has relevance for the Indian population and the Indian Diaspora but little relevance for other cultures. The manas or mind, chitta, buddhi, ahankara etc., form the psychological constructs of the person and are critical in understanding the psyche of Indians.<ref name=":08" />

According to Dr. Bhawuk<ref name=":08" />, Shrimad Bhagavadgita, explains the relationship between the physical body, sense organs, manas, buddhi, and Atman. Buddhi is the closest to Atman, but if it is outward focused, it guides manas to explore the world through the senses and the body enjoying such activities and their outcomes. However, when buddhi becomes inward focused towards Atman, manas becomes inward focused, detaching itself from the senses and body. They (body and senses) scan  but do not desire to acquire anything from the environment. Manas remains in what is referred to as yadṛcchālābhasantuṣṭaḥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22) or satisfied with whatever is offered by the environment without asking. The state of a Jnani is explained as follows.<blockquote>यदृच्छालाभसन्तुष्टो द्वन्द्वातीतो विमत्सरः । समः सिद्धावसिद्धौ च कृत्वापि न निबध्यते ॥ ४-२२॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22)</blockquote>Meaning: Content with what comes to him without effort, free from the pairs-of-opposites and envy, even-minded in success and failure, though acting he is not bound.

According to Dr. Bhawuk<ref name=":08" />, Shrimad Bhagavadgita, explains the relationship between the physical body, sense organs, manas, buddhi, and Atman. Buddhi is the closest to Atman, but if it is outward focused, it guides manas to explore the world through the senses and the body enjoying such activities and their outcomes. However, when buddhi becomes inward focused towards Atman, manas becomes inward focused, detaching itself from the senses and body. They (body and senses) scan  but do not desire to acquire anything from the environment. Manas remains in what is referred to as yadṛcchālābhasantuṣṭaḥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22) or satisfied with whatever is offered by the environment without asking. The state of a Jnani is explained as follows.<blockquote>यदृच्छालाभसन्तुष्टो द्वन्द्वातीतो विमत्सरः । समः सिद्धावसिद्धौ च कृत्वापि न निबध्यते ॥ ४-२२॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.22)</blockquote>Meaning: Content with what comes to him without effort, free from the pairs-of-opposites and envy, even-minded in success and failure, though acting he is not bound.

A person must use buddhi for purification of the self, though it is subtle and does not seem to have any agency. Here the focus is on engaging the manas inwards with the buddhi, gradually eliminating outward attachments and withdrawing from the worldly activities. Apart from the focus, the gunas, [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Sattva%20(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) sattva], [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Rajas%20(%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%83) rajas] and [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Tamas%20(%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) tamas] also play a significant role in determining the decisions the buddhi takes. Ahamkara used in the sense of ego, as in the concept of self in the West and it is because of its value in understanding how we perform activities.<ref name=":08" />

A person must use buddhi for purification of the self, though it is subtle and does not seem to have any agency. Here the focus is on engaging the manas inwards with the buddhi, gradually eliminating outward attachments and withdrawing from the worldly activities. Apart from the focus, the gunas, [[Sattva (सत्त्वम्)|sattva]], [[Rajas (रजः)|rajas]] and [[Tamas (तमः)|tamas]] also play a significant role in determining the decisions the buddhi takes. Ahamkara used in the sense of ego, as in the concept of self in the West and it is because of its value in understanding how we perform activities.<ref name=":08" />

===Social Self===

===Social Self===

Social network shaped by intricate relationships and behavior patterns  A few important parameters required for analysis and understanding of social and behavioral patterns used in modern research are summarized below.<ref name=":7">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, London: Springer. (Pages 10 - 15)</ref>

Social network shaped by intricate relationships and behavior patterns  A few important parameters required for analysis and understanding of social and behavioral patterns used in modern research are summarized below.<ref name=":7">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, London: Springer. (Pages 10 - 15)</ref>

# '''Individualism''': In individualist cultures, people view themselves as having an '''independent''' '''concept of self'''. Individualists' do not include other people, i.e., the self is independent. People in the Western world (e.g., USA, Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand) have an independent concept of self, and they feel a more pronounced social distance between themselves and others, including the immediate family.

# '''Individualism''': In individualist cultures, people view themselves as having an '''independent''' '''concept of self'''. Individualists' do not include other people, i.e., the self is independent. People in the Western world (e.g., USA, Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand) have an independent concept of self, and they feel a more pronounced social distance between themselves and others, including the immediate family.

# '''Collectivism''': In these cultures, people view themselves as having an '''interdependent''' '''concept of self'''. Collectivists' include other people in their social sphere, namely, members of family, friends, and even people from workplace. People in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and so forth have an interdependent concept of self, and social distance between an individual and his or her parents, spouse, siblings, children, friends, neighbors, supervisor, subordinate, and so forth is small.<ref name=":7" /> In India, the collective perspective is socially oriented and is founded on the concept of [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Dharma%20(%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) Dharma]. It refers to the codes of conduct that governs the social and moral life and preserves the stability of the society.<ref name=":4" />

# '''Collectivism''': In these cultures, people view themselves as having an '''interdependent''' '''concept of self'''. Collectivists' include other people in their social sphere, namely, members of family, friends, and even people from workplace. People in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and so forth have an interdependent concept of self, and social distance between an individual and his or her parents, spouse, siblings, children, friends, neighbors, supervisor, subordinate, and so forth is small.<ref name=":7" /> In India, the collective perspective is socially oriented and is founded on the concept of [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Dharma%20(%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83) Dharma]. It refers to the codes of conduct that governs the social and moral life and preserves the stability of the society.<ref name=":4">Dagar, C and Pandey, A. (2020) ''Well-Being at Workplace: A Perspective from Traditions of Yoga and Ayurveda''. Switzerland: Springer Nature</ref>

# '''Independent''' '''concept of self:''' For an individualistic person, the relationship between self and other people, or elements of nature is sharply and rigidly defined. He takes more control over elements of nature or situations around himself or herself. There is less emotional attachment to others and more responsibility for his or her behaviors.<ref name=":7" />

# '''Independent''' '''concept of self:''' For an individualistic person, the relationship between self and other people, or elements of nature is sharply and rigidly defined. He takes more control over elements of nature or situations around himself or herself. There is less emotional attachment to others and more responsibility for his or her behaviors.<ref name=":7" />

# '''Interdependent''' '''concept of self:''' An interdependent self has less rigid and amorphous boundary between self and other people. There is a holistic view of the world, where self is thought to be of the same substance as other things in nature. In this view, the elements of nature and self cannot be separated from each other. The relationship between self and other people or elements of nature is much closer, thereby they share interdependence and tighter emotional bonding with members of extended family and friends. A significant point that expresses cultural value of the extended family is the presence of single words to address them. Most Indian languages have single words not only for the members of the nucleus family i.e., father, mother, brother and sister, but also for members of extended family, such as paternal grandparents (dada and dadi), maternal grandparents (nana and nani) and so on.<ref name=":7" />

# '''Interdependent''' '''concept of self:''' An interdependent self has less rigid and amorphous boundary between self and other people. There is a holistic view of the world, where self is thought to be of the same substance as other things in nature. In this view, the elements of nature and self cannot be separated from each other. The relationship between self and other people or elements of nature is much closer, thereby they share interdependence and tighter emotional bonding with members of extended family and friends. A significant point that expresses cultural value of the extended family is the presence of single words to address them. Most Indian languages have single words not only for the members of the nucleus family i.e., father, mother, brother and sister, but also for members of extended family, such as paternal grandparents (dada and dadi), maternal grandparents (nana and nani) and so on.<ref name=":7" />