Difference between revisions of "Geographical Aspects in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त भौगोलिकविषयाः)"

From Dharmawiki
Jump to navigation Jump to search
(created a new page)
 
 
(12 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
The Rgveda is treated as the storehouse of recorded valuable geographical information. It contains references to places, rivers, mountains, forests and oceans. To put it in a nutshell, more or less pertains to the area in the northern belt from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the east to Afghanistan in the west, the easternmost river mentioned in the text being the Ganga, and the westernmost being the western tributaries of the Indus rivers.<ref>Talageri. Shrikant. G, (2000) The Rigveda - A Historical Analysis (Pages</ref>
+
The Rgveda is treated as the storehouse of recorded valuable geographical information. It contains references to places, rivers, mountains, forests and oceans. To put it in a nutshell, more or less pertains to the area in the northern belt from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the east to Afghanistan in the west, the easternmost river mentioned in the text being the Ganga, and the westernmost being the western tributaries of the Indus rivers.<ref name=":1">Talageri. Shrikant. G, (2000) The Rigveda - A Historical Analysis. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan</ref>
  
−
=== Mountains ===
+
According to A. C. Das, the original areas occupied by the Rgvedic people was geographically described as the Saptasindhu, which included the beautiful valley of Kashmir on the north and Gandhara on the west. Its southern boundary was the Rajputana sea and the eastern boundary the Eastern sea covering the Gangetic trough.<ref name=":7">Das, A. C. (1920) ''Rgvedic India, Cultural History of India as depicted in the Rgveda.'' New Delhi: Cosmo Publications </ref>
 +
 
 +
== Mountains ==
 
[https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Mountains_in_Rigveda_(%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) The mountains mentioned in the Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे पर्वतानां विवेचनम्)] give us a good insight on the geographical aspects of ancient mountain ranges that exist in the present times.<ref name=":4">Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) ''Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 515-531)</ref> One interesting point of mention is about Moojavat mountain, which is said to be the native habitat of Somalata used in Somayajnas.<ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref>
 
[https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Mountains_in_Rigveda_(%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) The mountains mentioned in the Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे पर्वतानां विवेचनम्)] give us a good insight on the geographical aspects of ancient mountain ranges that exist in the present times.<ref name=":4">Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) ''Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 515-531)</ref> One interesting point of mention is about Moojavat mountain, which is said to be the native habitat of Somalata used in Somayajnas.<ref name=":2">Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya</ref>
  
−
===Oceans===
+
==Oceans or Seas==
−
Rgveda offers good information about oceans, seas and other water bodies such as streams. People were well aware about the vast waterbodies and trade via the seas was prevalent. The terms samudra (समुद्रम्), udadhi (उदधि), sindhu (सिन्धु) and Arnava (अर्णव) have been used for ocean or a sea. In one context we find that the term 'sindhu' and samudra are mentioned together, in which sindhu means the river.<ref name=":0">Deka, Barnali. (2015) Ph.D Thesis Title: ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/115225 A socio cultural study of the Rgvedasamhita]''. Gauhati University. (Chapter 5 : Geographical Information as recorded in the Rgvedasamhita)</ref> We also find references to travel using boats or ships (Rgveda 1.25.7) for whom the direction is given by Varuna (by his winds). Some important findings include the following
+
Rgveda offers good information about oceans, seas and other water bodies such as streams. People were well aware about the vast waterbodies and trade via the seas was prevalent. The terms samudra (समुद्रम्), udadhi (उदधि), sindhu (सिन्धु) and Arnava (अर्णव) have been used for ocean or a sea. The sea has been described as without support, without any land or shores, and without any object that can be grasped for protection. It is defined as a shoreless and limitless ocean, with nothing but and water on every side. This context is mentioned in Rgveda (1.116.5) describing the Bhujyu Akhyana.
−
*'''Thar Desert was once a sea (Rgveda 7.95.2):''' In the present day Rajasthan where we see a desert now, the ancient texts have indicated the presence of a sea in the same area.<ref name=":4" />
+
 
−
*It is in these seas that treasure is said to be available, namely gems and precious stones (Rgveda 1.47.6, 7.6.7, 9.92.44 etc).<ref name=":3">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 283-294)</ref>
+
In one context we find that the term 'sindhu' and samudra are mentioned together, in which sindhu means the river. We also find references to travel using boats or ships (Rgveda 1.25.7) for whom the direction is given by Varuna (by his winds).<ref name=":0">Deka, Barnali. (2015) Ph.D Thesis Title: ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/115225 A socio cultural study of the Rgvedasamhita]''. Gauhati University. (Chapter 5 : Geographical Information as recorded in the Rgvedasamhita)</ref> Vasishta is said to have made a sea-voyage with Varuna, and he himself has described how the voyage was enjoyed and the vessel rocked and rolled over the waves (2.88.3).<ref name=":7" />
−
*People had knowledge about the origin of '''pearls (मुक्ताः)''' the semi-precious stone, from the seas (Rg.Veda. 1.47.6)<ref name=":2" />
+
 
 +
Some important findings include the following
 +
*'''Rajputana Desert was once a sea (Rgveda 7.95.2):''' In the present day Rajasthan where there exists a desert, the ancient texts have indicated the presence of a sea.<ref name=":4" />
 +
*The [[Four Oceans in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त चतुःसमुद्राः)|four oceans mentioned in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त चतुःसमुद्राः)]] form the boundaries of the earth where the people of those times lived (Rgveda 9.33.6, 10.47.2).
 +
*The '''rivers all flow towards the seas''' or oceans and increase it's size is clearly mentioned in many instances in the Rgveda (1.71.7, 1.190.7 etc).<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> It is stated that not only the rivers can fill a big ocean but also rain should pour water upon it (Rgveda 5.85.6).<ref name=":0" />
 +
*The '''presence of islands (Dvipas)''' have also been mentioned in the Rgveda (1.169.3) and the islands are surrounded by floods.<ref name=":4" />
 +
*It is in these seas that '''treasure''' is said to be available, namely gems and precious stones (Rgveda 1.47.6, 7.6.7, 9.92.44, 10.5.1 etc).<ref name=":3">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 283-294)</ref>
 +
*People had knowledge about the '''origin of''' '''pearls (मुक्ताः)''' the semi-precious stone, from the seas (Rg.Veda. 1.47.6)<ref name=":2" />
  
−
*That the '''huge waves in the seas''' are caused by the air circulation was mentioned in Rgveda (1.19.7 and 8, 1.119.4 etc). Other mantras describe that a hurricane can destroy the ships in the sea.
+
*'''Sea waves''' are described in Rgveda (5.78.8, 9.50.1, 9.80.5).<ref name=":0" /> That the '''huge waves in the seas''' are caused by the air circulation was mentioned in Rgveda (1.19.7 and 8, 1.119.4 etc). Other mantras describe that a hurricane can destroy the ships in the sea.<ref name=":4" /> So there is a prayer that the waves do not raise high (Rgveda 3.33.3).<ref name=":0" />
−
*Presence of '''natural gases in oceans''' is discussed in Rgveda (Rgveda 8.102.4)<ref name=":3" /> It is termed as पुरीष्य अग्निः। This is so called because it has the ability to light up and spreads across in various places of the ocean bed.
+
*Presence of '''natural gases in oceans''' is discussed in Rgveda (Rgveda 8.102.4). It is termed as पुरीष्य अग्निः। This is so called because it has the ability to light up and spreads across in various places of the ocean bed.<ref name=":3" />
 
*'''Medicinal substances and food items''' from the oceans, rivers and mountains is well explained in this Veda (Rg. Veda. 8.20.25).<ref name=":3" />
 
*'''Medicinal substances and food items''' from the oceans, rivers and mountains is well explained in this Veda (Rg. Veda. 8.20.25).<ref name=":3" />
  
−
==== Bhujya Akhyayana ====
+
==== Bhujyu Akhyayana ====
−
Ancient Indians were explorers; thus shipping, marine travels, and trade-routes were well established. Many mantras are mentioned as reference for the Rgvedic merchants who navigated the four seas in quest of wealth.  
+
Ancient Indians were explorers; thus shipping, marine travels, and trade-routes were well established. Many mantras are mentioned as reference for the Rig vedic merchants who navigated the four seas in quest of wealth.<ref name=":2" /> Merchants used to "plough" the seas with their vessels in quest of wealth.<ref name=":7" />  <blockquote>तं गू॒र्तयो॑ नेम॒न्निष॒: परी॑णसः समु॒द्रं न सं॒चर॑णे सनि॒ष्यव॑: । पतिं॒ दक्ष॑स्य वि॒दथ॑स्य॒ नू सहो॑ गि॒रिं न वे॒ना अधि॑ रोह॒ तेज॑सा ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.56.2) </blockquote>They offered prayers to the Ocean before undertaking a voyage (Rig. Veda. 4.55.6). Merchants possessed fleets of tradesmen whom they sent across the seas for the purposes of trade (1.48.3). The anecdote of Bhujya, the son of Tugra, describes about the sea-voyages. According to this legend, Bhujya undertakes a long journey over the sea at the direction of his father, Raja Tugra, to punish some recalcitrant islanders.<ref name=":7" /> It was during this voyage that he was shipwrecked and rescued by the Asvini devatas.<blockquote>अ॒ना॒र॒म्भ॒णे तद॑वीरयेथामनास्था॒ने अ॑ग्रभ॒णे स॑मु॒द्रे । यद॑श्विना ऊ॒हथु॑र्भु॒ज्युमस्तं॑ श॒तारि॑त्रां॒ नाव॑मातस्थि॒वांस॑म् ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.116.5)</blockquote>Meaning - This exploit you achieved, Asvins, in the oceans where there is nothing to give support, nothing to rest upon, nothing to cling to: that you brought Bhujyu, sailing in a hundred-oared ship to his father's house.<ref name=":7" />
 +
 
 +
Here we find the characteristics of an ocean well described. As soon as Bhujyu finds that his ships might break and sink, Bhujyu prays to the Ashvini devatas for protection. With their help he docks the ships to safety and praises the deities who protected his life.<ref name=":2" />
  
−
The anecdote of Bhujya, the son of Tugra, describes about the sea-voyages. According to this legend, Bhujya undertakes a long journey over the sea, using ships which are a hundred "dandas" (an ancient unit to measure length) long. As soon as the doubt that the ships might break and sink arises, Bhujya prays to the Ashvini devatas for protection. With their help  he docks the ships to safety and praises the deities who protected his life. A few things are clear here, namely, that
+
A few things are clear here, namely, that the Rigvedic people
  
−
* the Rigvedic people had clear knowledge of travelling on the seas and oceans
+
* had ample knowledge of travelling on the seas and oceans
 +
* were aware of the characteristics of oceans and seas (waves, depth, limitlessness etc)
 +
* oceans held a sacred position and they were worshipped before voyages
 
* they were well versed in constructing big ships of sizeable proportions
 
* they were well versed in constructing big ships of sizeable proportions
 
* they were adept in navigating these big ships on the high seas
 
* they were adept in navigating these big ships on the high seas
  
−
====चतुःसमुद्राः ॥ Four seas====
+
== नद्यः ॥ Rivers ==
−
It is known that the present peninsular Indian subcontinent is surrounded by three seas (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and the Arabian sea in the present terms). In many mantras of Rgveda there is a mention about "'''two seas (उभी समुद्रौ)'''" namely the 'पूर्व (purva)' which refers to the Bay of Bengal and 'पर (para)' samudra refers to Arabian sea (Rigveda 10.136.5). It is important to note that Rgvedic texts mention about the presence of a fourth sea in the northern region of India below the Himalayas.<blockquote>रायः समुद्राँश्चतुरोऽस्मभ्यं सोम विश्वत: । आ पवस्व सहस्रिण: ॥६॥ (Rg. Veda 9.33.6)
+
In these texts, we see many rivers mentioned along with their characteristic color and flow. The Sapta-sindhu region or the land of seven rivers is stated to be the homeland of the Rgvedic people. The word "Sapta-sindhu" means "seven rivers". Thus the very habitation of the Rgvedic people has been defined on the basis of river basins. Rivers have always supported civilizations and have been the lifelines for many civilizations. Large number of evidences in the recent archeological excavations near the Sarasvati basin revealed the flourishing Indus Valley civilization habitations.
 +
 
 +
There are at least '''nineteen rivers''' mentioned in the Rg veda, with the Sarasvati and Indus rivers (along with it's tributaries) gaining a lot of attention. The [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Rivers_in_Rigveda_(%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) rivers mentioned in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्)] drew a great attention in the past few centuries with the Sarasvati (सरस्वती), though long lost, has occupied the media but generally for the wrong reasons. Dr. Michel Danino meticulously summed up the issues and debates associated with Sarasvati backed with the latest research, satellite imagery and archeological evidences.<ref name=":02">S. K. Acharya, Kunal Gosh, and Amal Kar (2020) ''Saraswati: The River par Excellence.'' Kolkata: The Asiatic Society (Pages 217-234)</ref>
 +
 
 +
Ganga and Yamuna have certainly been mentioned in the Rgveda once or twice, but they have not at all been included in the computation of the Saptasindhu that gave the country its name. Beyond the Ganga and Yamuna, no other rivers of Northern India, nor any provinces like Panchala, Kosala, Magadha, Anga and Vanga find any mention in the Rgveda. Towards the south, neither the Deccan, nor the Vindhya mountains nor any of the large and famous rivers flowing in the peninsular Indian region have been mentioned.<ref name=":7" />
 +
 
 +
== देशाः ॥ Places in Rgveda ==
 +
According to Shrikant Talageri, place-names directly or indirectly in the Rgveda can be classified into five basic geographical regions, from west to east, on the basis of present-day terminology:<ref name=":1" />
 +
 
 +
A. Afghanistan.
 +
 
 +
B. Punjab.
 +
 
 +
C. Haryana.
 +
 
 +
D. Uttar Pradesh.
 +
 
 +
E. Bihar.
 +
 
 +
'''Afghanistan''': The ancient place-name for Kandahar (कन्धार) that we find in the Rigveda is Gandhari (गन्धारि), and this name is a only once in the whole of the Rigveda. There is a mention of the wool bearing sheep.<ref name=":6">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 248-255)</ref>
 +
 
 +
'''Punjab''': The geographical area covering the present-day Punjab is identified to be the Saptasindhu region mentioned in the Rigveda by many scholars. It is the land of the five rivers enclosed between two more rivers: the Indus in the west and the Sarasvati in the east.<ref name=":1" />
 +
 
 +
'''Haryana''': There are many places in Kurukshetra referred to in the Rigvedic mantras. The references to Haryana are fairly distributed throughout the Rigveda, 6.1.2. refers to Agni being established at Ilaspada, more so 3.23.4 tells us the Devavaata, an ancestor of Divodasa, established Agni at that spot.<ref name=":1" />
 +
 
 +
'''Uttar Pradesh''': There are no direct references to any place in Uttar Pradesh, but the Anukramanis provide us with priceless clues. Suktas 9.96 and 10.179.2 are composed by Bharata rshi, who attributes his compositions to his remote ancestor, Pratardana. He uses the epithets of his ancestor: in 9.96, the epithet is DaivodasI (दैवोदासी) son or descendant of Divodasa and in 10.179.2 the epithet is Kasiraja (King of Kasi).
 +
 
 +
Pratardana was a ruler of Kasi, which is in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Shrikant Talageri, infers that the Bharata kings ruled over the land between Kashi in the east and Kurukshetra in the west.<ref name=":1" /> In the Rgveda we find the reference of Chedi rajya whose raja was Kashu (कशु). He was praised highly for giving danas. Chedi is a part of the Bundelkhand region.<ref name=":6" />
 +
 
 +
'''Bihar''': The most historically prominent part of ancient Bihar was Magadha, also known as Kikata (कीकट). While the word Magadha is not found in the Rigveda, the word Kikata is found in 3.53.14.<ref name=":1" /> Some scholars do not agree with this view and refer to Kikata as a place between the rivers Sutlej and Beas and is not Magadha.<ref name=":2" />
 +
 
 +
According to Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya,<ref name=":2" /> in the northwestern countries and the people we find the names Gandhari, Kambhoj, Kikata, Balhika, and Vahika.
 +
 
 +
* In Rigveda mantra (3.53.14) we learn that between Vipash (Beas) and Shutudri (Sutlej) rivers is a land where cows are found in plenty. That region was called as '''Kikata (कीकट)'''.
 +
* In the Rigveda mantra (1.126.8) we find the term '''Gandhari (गन्धारि)''' referring to the famous place Gandhar. From a reference in the Chandogya Upanishad, we learn that Gandhar is a place far far away from where the Rigvedic people lived. As the settlements happened more towards the eastern regions, it is but natural that Gandhar would be far away for them. "गान्धारीणामिवाविका" refers to the beautiful haired (wooly) sheep that were famous in the Rigvedic times.<ref name=":2" /> The present Kandahar (कन्धार) is a vikriti form of Gandhar. In ancient times the region from Takshashila to Kabul was said to be Gandhar. This region also includes the cities Rawalpindi and Peshawar presently situated in Pakistan.<ref name=":6" />
 +
 
 +
== जनाः ॥ People in Rgveda ==
 +
 
 +
In the Rigveda, we find that people were divided into five principal classes that possessed homogeneous civilization, performed common religious activities, observed same social customs, followed similar occupations and lived in village communities or in fortified cities. We find the term '''Panchajana (पञ्चजन)''' indicating the fine main classes or races. "Panchajana (पञ्चजन)" is found in instances such as in पञ्चजना मम होत्रं जुषध्वम् । (Rig. Veda. 10.53.4). Panchajanaah or the five peoples are mentioned by various terms, viz.
 +
 
 +
Panchajaah (पञ्चजनाः) as in <blockquote>
 +
इ॒न्द्रि॒याणि॑ शतक्रतो॒ या ते॒ जने॑षु प॒ञ्चसु॑ । इन्द्र॒ तानि॑ त॒ आ वृ॑णे ॥९॥ (Rig. Veda. 3.37.9) </blockquote>Panchakrshtayaha (पञ्चकृष्टयः) as in<blockquote>अ॒स्माकं॑ द्यु॒म्नमधि॒ पञ्च॑ कृ॒ष्टिषू॒च्चा स्व१र्ण शु॑शुचीत दु॒ष्टर॑म् ॥१०॥ (Rig. Veda. 2.2.10)</blockquote>Panchacharshanyaha (या पञ्चचर्षण्यः)<blockquote>या पञ्च॑ चर्ष॒णीर॒भी॑न्द्रा॒ग्नी ता ह॑वामहे ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.86.2)</blockquote>Panchakshitayaha (पञ्चक्षितयः)<blockquote>इन्द्र॒: पञ्च॑ क्षिती॒नाम्॥९॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.7.9)</blockquote>According to Pt. Kapil Dev Dwivedi, in the Aitareya Brahmana (8.3.14) we find an explanation about this term. The raja and praja (the king and the citizens) belonging to the purva (east), paschima (west), uttara (north) and dakshina (south) deshas (देश-s - places) along with the madhya-desha namely Kuru and Panchala rajyas constitute the Panchajanas (ध्रुवा मध्यमा प्रतिष्ठा). In this way Panchajana includes the the whole population  in the region. According to Sayanacharya, Panchajana includes the people of the four varnas and the Nishada tribes.<ref name=":6" />
 +
 
 +
Traditional history knows of many different streams of tribes or peoples, but the two main streams are of those belonging to the Solar Race of the IkSvAkus, and those belonging to the Lunar Race of the AiLas. The AiLas are further divided into five main branches: the Yadu-s (यदु), TurvaSa-s (तुर्वश), Druhyu-s (द्रुह्यु), Anu-s (अनु) and PUru-s (पूरु).<ref name=":1" /> It is mentioned in the mantra as follows<blockquote>यदि॑न्द्राग्नी॒ यदु॑षु तु॒र्वशे॑षु॒ यद् द्रु॒ह्युष्वनु॑षु पू॒रुषु॒ स्थः ।
 +
 
 +
अत॒: परि॑ वृषणा॒वा हि या॒तमथा॒ सोम॑स्य पिबतं सु॒तस्य॑ ॥८॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.108.8)</blockquote>
 +
 
 +
=== यदु The Yadu-s ===
 +
Mentioned frequently in the Rigveda, they are the people born in the race of Yadu. The Yadavas are mentioned with the Parshu, which according to Sayanacharya's commentary the son of Parashu. In the Dasarajna yuddha, the battle of the ten kings, the Yadus took part against Sudas.<ref name=":0" /> Indra is said to have crossed the ocean and brought back to the shores of Sapta-sindhu, the Yadu and Turvasa people who left their country and lived on the farther shores of the ocean as unanointed kings, probably in a new colony of their own (Rig. Veda. 4.30.17 and 6.20.12).<ref name=":1" />
 +
 
 +
=== तुर्वश The Turvasha-s ===
 +
The Turvasas are mentioned along with the Yadu in many places. They lived in the west of Parushni i.e. in the region which existed between Vitasta and AsiknI. In the Rgvedic mantra 6.45.1, it is indicated that Yadu and Turvasas come from Paraavata i.e. a distant land or brought by Indra from that region. It is stated that later they merged with the Krivis, etc., to give rise to the Pancala people.<ref name=":0" />
 +
 
 +
=== द्रुह्यु The Druhyu-s ===
 +
The Drhyu-s were as powerful as the Puru-s and Trkshu-s. They were the inhabitants of the region between Parushni in the east and Asikni in the west.  Druhyu is regarded as one of the names of the five sons of Yayati.
 +
 
 +
=== अनु The Anu-s ===
 +
The Anus are mentioned with the Druhyus, Yadus and Turvasas (Rigveda 1.108.8, 7.18.14, 8.10.5). Some scholars believe they dwelt on the Parushni river as per the mantra 7.18.14. They are also mentioned in the later texts as one of the five sons of Yayati who dwelt by the Parushni river.
 +
 
 +
=== The Puru-s ===
 +
They are the most powerful among the five different people. Sayanacharya interprets the term "puru" as many. According to Yaska, PUru means man or supplicating men. They dwelt on the banks of the Sarasvati river as mentioned in the following mantra.
  
−
स्वायुधं स्ववसं सुनीथं । चतुःसमुद्रं धरुणं रयीणाम् ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.47.2)
+
उ॒भे यत्ते॑ महि॒ना शु॑भ्रे॒ अन्ध॑सी अधिक्षि॒यन्ति॑ पू॒रव॑: ।... ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 7.96.2)
  
−
वात॒स्याश्वो॑ वा॒योः सखाथो॑ दे॒वेषि॑तो॒ मुनि॑: । उ॒भौ स॑मु॒द्रावा क्षे॑ति॒ यश्च॒ पूर्व॑ उ॒ताप॑रः ॥५॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.136.5)</blockquote>The Muni referred to here is identified with Keshi or Sun whose rays are like the golden hairs of an ascetic. The Sun is also compared to a horse in the Rgveda. Keshi or Sun dwells both in the Eastern and Western seas, because he is seen to rise from the Eastern sea and sink down into the Western sea. Now this Eastern sea could be none other than the sea that washed the eastern shores of Sapta Sindhu. It is over this sea that the Ashvini devatas preceded and heralded the Dawn. Further it was from the depth of these waters that the Sun was seen, from the shores of Sapta Sindhu, to emerge and ascend the sky (Rg. Veda. 3.55.1).<ref name=":7">Das, A. C. (1920) ''Rgvedic India, Cultural History of India as depicted in the Rgveda.'' New Delhi: Cosmo Publications (Page 10 - )</ref> Of these four seas, the Rgveda mentions about two, the 'पूर्व (purva)' and 'अपर (apara)' samudras. The Purva (or अवर-Avara) samudra also called as Arvavat (अर्वावत्) is where the sunrises and the Apara (or पर - Para) samudra also called as Paraavat (परावत्) is where the sun sets. The Arabian sea is the Paraavat sea where the Sindhu and its tributaries drain into. It however, ran up the present lower valley of the Indus along the foot of the Western Range, and covered a large portion of the present province of Sindh. However, scholars opine that the Purva (Apara or Arvaavat) sea is not the same as the Bay of Bengal as this bay is very far from where the Saptasindhu rivers were flowing. It has been proposed that land areas that are now known to be Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, i.e., the gangetic plains were we find the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, were once areas of a sea (in the Pleistocene era) which got filled with the sands brought down by the rivers and became plains.<ref name=":42">Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) ''Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 515-531)</ref>
+
Supported by other scholarly views, C.V. Vaidya states that the Puru-s became prosperous and founded a kingdom in the present Ambala region on the banks of the river Sarasvati to which territory their representatives the Kurus eventually gave their name.
  
−
Geological evidence goes on to show that there were actually three seas on the three sides of Sapta Sindhu, i.e., the Eastern, the Western and the Southern and the fourth sea logically must have been somewhere on the north beyond the Himalayas. There is a mention that a deep trough (sea) did exist at the foot of the Himalayan range in ancient geological times as per Mr. Wadia (in his Geology of India book). This trough or sea lasted through long ages during which it was gradually filled up with alluvium into which were embedded the remains of a rich varied fauna "of herbivores, carnivores, rodents and of primates, the highest order of the mammals," brought down by the rivers and streams.<blockquote>ये अ॑स्या आ॒चर॑णेषु दध्रि॒रे स॑मु॒द्रे न श्र॑व॒स्यव॑: ॥३॥ (Rg. Veda. 1.48.3)<ref>Rgveda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhitas-mandal-01-sukta-048/ Mandala 1 Sukta 48])</ref></blockquote>According to Dr. A. C. Das, geological evidence proves that such a sea did actually exist in ancient times, stretching from below the highlands of modern Turkestan towards Siberia on one side, and from the confines of Mongolia to the Black Sea, on the other, covering an immense area. This sea disappeared in comparatively recent geological times, leaving the Black Sea, the Sea of Aral, Lake Balkash, and an extensive depression low, dry and converted into steppes, as its remnants. The Black Sea was not at that time connected with the Mediterranean, and its western shores formed the Isthmus of Bosphorus linking Europe with Asia. On the confines of East Turkestan also there was in ancient times another immense Asiatic Mediterranean Sea, of which Lake Lobnor is the remnant. These stern geological facts are corroborated in Rgvedic mantras. We can see the effects of climate change reflected in the mantras and the disappearance of one of the four seas around the Sapta Sindhu, and the upheaval of a vast tract of arid desert in the South. Dr. Das's discussion about various geological evidences<blockquote>''"clearly proved the existence of the four seas mentioned in the Rgveda, round about the region, inhabited by the ancient Aryans, which included Sapta-sindhu on the south, Bactriana and Eastern Turkestan on the north, Gandhara on the west and the upper valleys of the Ganga and Yamuna on the east. The age of the Rgveda, therefore, must be as old as the existence of these four seas in ancient times."'' <ref name=":7" /></blockquote>It is time we delve deeper into the geological testimony which supports the vast antiquity of Rgveda stretching back to times immemorial.<ref name=":7" />
+
D.C. Sircar also states that these people were later merged with the Kuru people.67 Renou holdsthatthe tribe ofthe Puru wasthe most important, at a latertime it entered into alliance with theBharata, forming them with the new group ofthe Kuru. Together withthe Pancala (formerlytheKrivi), theKuru who hadestablished themselves in theDoab (which the later literature, fromtheirname, called the Kuruksetra), formed the centre ofthe Vedic culture.68 Trasadasyu, Purukutsa and Kurusravanawere the kings of the Purus, as mentioned in the Rgveda. The Purus, Turvasas, the Yadus and theAnus formed acoalition againstthe chiefoftheTrtsus called Sudasinthe battle. Due to constant clash, the Purus were divided into the Bharatas, Trtsu, Kus^ka etc.
  
−
=== Rivers ===
+
The Rigveda is little concerned with the IkSvAkus as a people, inspite of the fact that it has the second most important dynasty of TRkSis, a branch of the Ikshvakus. The word Ikshvaku itself occurs only once in the Rgveda as a name of the Surya (10.60.4).<ref name=":1" />
−
In these texts, we see There are at least '''nineteen rivers''' mentioned in the Rg veda, with the Sarasvati and Indus rivers (along with it's tributaries) gaining a lot of attention. The [https://dharmawiki.org/index.php/Rivers_in_Rigveda_(%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D) rivers mentioned in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्)] drew a great attention in the past few centuries with the Sarasvati (सरस्वती), though long lost, has occupied the media but generally for the wrong reasons. Dr. Michel Danino meticulously summed up the issues and debates associated with Sarasvati backed with the latest research and archeological evidences.<ref name=":02">S. K. Acharya, Kunal Gosh, and Amal Kar (2020) ''Saraswati: The River par Excellence.'' Kolkata: The Asiatic Society (Pages 217-234)</ref>  
 
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
 +
<references />
 +
[[Category:Rigveda]]

Latest revision as of 15:24, 17 December 2021

The Rgveda is treated as the storehouse of recorded valuable geographical information. It contains references to places, rivers, mountains, forests and oceans. To put it in a nutshell, more or less pertains to the area in the northern belt from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the east to Afghanistan in the west, the easternmost river mentioned in the text being the Ganga, and the westernmost being the western tributaries of the Indus rivers.[1]

According to A. C. Das, the original areas occupied by the Rgvedic people was geographically described as the Saptasindhu, which included the beautiful valley of Kashmir on the north and Gandhara on the west. Its southern boundary was the Rajputana sea and the eastern boundary the Eastern sea covering the Gangetic trough.[2]

Mountains

The mountains mentioned in the Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे पर्वतानां विवेचनम्) give us a good insight on the geographical aspects of ancient mountain ranges that exist in the present times.[3] One interesting point of mention is about Moojavat mountain, which is said to be the native habitat of Somalata used in Somayajnas.[4]

Oceans or Seas

Rgveda offers good information about oceans, seas and other water bodies such as streams. People were well aware about the vast waterbodies and trade via the seas was prevalent. The terms samudra (समुद्रम्), udadhi (उदधि), sindhu (सिन्धु) and Arnava (अर्णव) have been used for ocean or a sea. The sea has been described as without support, without any land or shores, and without any object that can be grasped for protection. It is defined as a shoreless and limitless ocean, with nothing but and water on every side. This context is mentioned in Rgveda (1.116.5) describing the Bhujyu Akhyana.

In one context we find that the term 'sindhu' and samudra are mentioned together, in which sindhu means the river. We also find references to travel using boats or ships (Rgveda 1.25.7) for whom the direction is given by Varuna (by his winds).[5] Vasishta is said to have made a sea-voyage with Varuna, and he himself has described how the voyage was enjoyed and the vessel rocked and rolled over the waves (2.88.3).[2]

Some important findings include the following

  • Rajputana Desert was once a sea (Rgveda 7.95.2): In the present day Rajasthan where there exists a desert, the ancient texts have indicated the presence of a sea.[3]
  • The four oceans mentioned in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त चतुःसमुद्राः) form the boundaries of the earth where the people of those times lived (Rgveda 9.33.6, 10.47.2).
  • The rivers all flow towards the seas or oceans and increase it's size is clearly mentioned in many instances in the Rgveda (1.71.7, 1.190.7 etc).[4][5] It is stated that not only the rivers can fill a big ocean but also rain should pour water upon it (Rgveda 5.85.6).[5]
  • The presence of islands (Dvipas) have also been mentioned in the Rgveda (1.169.3) and the islands are surrounded by floods.[3]
  • It is in these seas that treasure is said to be available, namely gems and precious stones (Rgveda 1.47.6, 7.6.7, 9.92.44, 10.5.1 etc).[6]
  • People had knowledge about the origin of pearls (मुक्ताः) the semi-precious stone, from the seas (Rg.Veda. 1.47.6)[4]
  • Sea waves are described in Rgveda (5.78.8, 9.50.1, 9.80.5).[5] That the huge waves in the seas are caused by the air circulation was mentioned in Rgveda (1.19.7 and 8, 1.119.4 etc). Other mantras describe that a hurricane can destroy the ships in the sea.[3] So there is a prayer that the waves do not raise high (Rgveda 3.33.3).[5]
  • Presence of natural gases in oceans is discussed in Rgveda (Rgveda 8.102.4). It is termed as पुरीष्य अग्निः। This is so called because it has the ability to light up and spreads across in various places of the ocean bed.[6]
  • Medicinal substances and food items from the oceans, rivers and mountains is well explained in this Veda (Rg. Veda. 8.20.25).[6]

Bhujyu Akhyayana

Ancient Indians were explorers; thus shipping, marine travels, and trade-routes were well established. Many mantras are mentioned as reference for the Rig vedic merchants who navigated the four seas in quest of wealth.[4] Merchants used to "plough" the seas with their vessels in quest of wealth.[2]

तं गू॒र्तयो॑ नेम॒न्निष॒: परी॑णसः समु॒द्रं न सं॒चर॑णे सनि॒ष्यव॑: । पतिं॒ दक्ष॑स्य वि॒दथ॑स्य॒ नू सहो॑ गि॒रिं न वे॒ना अधि॑ रोह॒ तेज॑सा ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.56.2)

They offered prayers to the Ocean before undertaking a voyage (Rig. Veda. 4.55.6). Merchants possessed fleets of tradesmen whom they sent across the seas for the purposes of trade (1.48.3). The anecdote of Bhujya, the son of Tugra, describes about the sea-voyages. According to this legend, Bhujya undertakes a long journey over the sea at the direction of his father, Raja Tugra, to punish some recalcitrant islanders.[2] It was during this voyage that he was shipwrecked and rescued by the Asvini devatas.

अ॒ना॒र॒म्भ॒णे तद॑वीरयेथामनास्था॒ने अ॑ग्रभ॒णे स॑मु॒द्रे । यद॑श्विना ऊ॒हथु॑र्भु॒ज्युमस्तं॑ श॒तारि॑त्रां॒ नाव॑मातस्थि॒वांस॑म् ॥५॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.116.5)

Meaning - This exploit you achieved, Asvins, in the oceans where there is nothing to give support, nothing to rest upon, nothing to cling to: that you brought Bhujyu, sailing in a hundred-oared ship to his father's house.[2]

Here we find the characteristics of an ocean well described. As soon as Bhujyu finds that his ships might break and sink, Bhujyu prays to the Ashvini devatas for protection. With their help he docks the ships to safety and praises the deities who protected his life.[4]

A few things are clear here, namely, that the Rigvedic people

  • had ample knowledge of travelling on the seas and oceans
  • were aware of the characteristics of oceans and seas (waves, depth, limitlessness etc)
  • oceans held a sacred position and they were worshipped before voyages
  • they were well versed in constructing big ships of sizeable proportions
  • they were adept in navigating these big ships on the high seas

नद्यः ॥ Rivers

In these texts, we see many rivers mentioned along with their characteristic color and flow. The Sapta-sindhu region or the land of seven rivers is stated to be the homeland of the Rgvedic people. The word "Sapta-sindhu" means "seven rivers". Thus the very habitation of the Rgvedic people has been defined on the basis of river basins. Rivers have always supported civilizations and have been the lifelines for many civilizations. Large number of evidences in the recent archeological excavations near the Sarasvati basin revealed the flourishing Indus Valley civilization habitations.

There are at least nineteen rivers mentioned in the Rg veda, with the Sarasvati and Indus rivers (along with it's tributaries) gaining a lot of attention. The rivers mentioned in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्) drew a great attention in the past few centuries with the Sarasvati (सरस्वती), though long lost, has occupied the media but generally for the wrong reasons. Dr. Michel Danino meticulously summed up the issues and debates associated with Sarasvati backed with the latest research, satellite imagery and archeological evidences.[7]

Ganga and Yamuna have certainly been mentioned in the Rgveda once or twice, but they have not at all been included in the computation of the Saptasindhu that gave the country its name. Beyond the Ganga and Yamuna, no other rivers of Northern India, nor any provinces like Panchala, Kosala, Magadha, Anga and Vanga find any mention in the Rgveda. Towards the south, neither the Deccan, nor the Vindhya mountains nor any of the large and famous rivers flowing in the peninsular Indian region have been mentioned.[2]

देशाः ॥ Places in Rgveda

According to Shrikant Talageri, place-names directly or indirectly in the Rgveda can be classified into five basic geographical regions, from west to east, on the basis of present-day terminology:[1]

A. Afghanistan.

B. Punjab.

C. Haryana.

D. Uttar Pradesh.

E. Bihar.

Afghanistan: The ancient place-name for Kandahar (कन्धार) that we find in the Rigveda is Gandhari (गन्धारि), and this name is a only once in the whole of the Rigveda. There is a mention of the wool bearing sheep.[8]

Punjab: The geographical area covering the present-day Punjab is identified to be the Saptasindhu region mentioned in the Rigveda by many scholars. It is the land of the five rivers enclosed between two more rivers: the Indus in the west and the Sarasvati in the east.[1]

Haryana: There are many places in Kurukshetra referred to in the Rigvedic mantras. The references to Haryana are fairly distributed throughout the Rigveda, 6.1.2. refers to Agni being established at Ilaspada, more so 3.23.4 tells us the Devavaata, an ancestor of Divodasa, established Agni at that spot.[1]

Uttar Pradesh: There are no direct references to any place in Uttar Pradesh, but the Anukramanis provide us with priceless clues. Suktas 9.96 and 10.179.2 are composed by Bharata rshi, who attributes his compositions to his remote ancestor, Pratardana. He uses the epithets of his ancestor: in 9.96, the epithet is DaivodasI (दैवोदासी) son or descendant of Divodasa and in 10.179.2 the epithet is Kasiraja (King of Kasi).

Pratardana was a ruler of Kasi, which is in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Shrikant Talageri, infers that the Bharata kings ruled over the land between Kashi in the east and Kurukshetra in the west.[1] In the Rgveda we find the reference of Chedi rajya whose raja was Kashu (कशु). He was praised highly for giving danas. Chedi is a part of the Bundelkhand region.[8]

Bihar: The most historically prominent part of ancient Bihar was Magadha, also known as Kikata (कीकट). While the word Magadha is not found in the Rigveda, the word Kikata is found in 3.53.14.[1] Some scholars do not agree with this view and refer to Kikata as a place between the rivers Sutlej and Beas and is not Magadha.[4]

According to Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya,[4] in the northwestern countries and the people we find the names Gandhari, Kambhoj, Kikata, Balhika, and Vahika.

  • In Rigveda mantra (3.53.14) we learn that between Vipash (Beas) and Shutudri (Sutlej) rivers is a land where cows are found in plenty. That region was called as Kikata (कीकट).
  • In the Rigveda mantra (1.126.8) we find the term Gandhari (गन्धारि) referring to the famous place Gandhar. From a reference in the Chandogya Upanishad, we learn that Gandhar is a place far far away from where the Rigvedic people lived. As the settlements happened more towards the eastern regions, it is but natural that Gandhar would be far away for them. "गान्धारीणामिवाविका" refers to the beautiful haired (wooly) sheep that were famous in the Rigvedic times.[4] The present Kandahar (कन्धार) is a vikriti form of Gandhar. In ancient times the region from Takshashila to Kabul was said to be Gandhar. This region also includes the cities Rawalpindi and Peshawar presently situated in Pakistan.[8]

जनाः ॥ People in Rgveda

In the Rigveda, we find that people were divided into five principal classes that possessed homogeneous civilization, performed common religious activities, observed same social customs, followed similar occupations and lived in village communities or in fortified cities. We find the term Panchajana (पञ्चजन) indicating the fine main classes or races. "Panchajana (पञ्चजन)" is found in instances such as in पञ्चजना मम होत्रं जुषध्वम् । (Rig. Veda. 10.53.4). Panchajanaah or the five peoples are mentioned by various terms, viz.

Panchajaah (पञ्चजनाः) as in

इ॒न्द्रि॒याणि॑ शतक्रतो॒ या ते॒ जने॑षु प॒ञ्चसु॑ । इन्द्र॒ तानि॑ त॒ आ वृ॑णे ॥९॥ (Rig. Veda. 3.37.9)

Panchakrshtayaha (पञ्चकृष्टयः) as in

अ॒स्माकं॑ द्यु॒म्नमधि॒ पञ्च॑ कृ॒ष्टिषू॒च्चा स्व१र्ण शु॑शुचीत दु॒ष्टर॑म् ॥१०॥ (Rig. Veda. 2.2.10)

Panchacharshanyaha (या पञ्चचर्षण्यः)

या पञ्च॑ चर्ष॒णीर॒भी॑न्द्रा॒ग्नी ता ह॑वामहे ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 5.86.2)

Panchakshitayaha (पञ्चक्षितयः)

इन्द्र॒: पञ्च॑ क्षिती॒नाम्॥९॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.7.9)

According to Pt. Kapil Dev Dwivedi, in the Aitareya Brahmana (8.3.14) we find an explanation about this term. The raja and praja (the king and the citizens) belonging to the purva (east), paschima (west), uttara (north) and dakshina (south) deshas (देश-s - places) along with the madhya-desha namely Kuru and Panchala rajyas constitute the Panchajanas (ध्रुवा मध्यमा प्रतिष्ठा). In this way Panchajana includes the the whole population in the region. According to Sayanacharya, Panchajana includes the people of the four varnas and the Nishada tribes.[8] Traditional history knows of many different streams of tribes or peoples, but the two main streams are of those belonging to the Solar Race of the IkSvAkus, and those belonging to the Lunar Race of the AiLas. The AiLas are further divided into five main branches: the Yadu-s (यदु), TurvaSa-s (तुर्वश), Druhyu-s (द्रुह्यु), Anu-s (अनु) and PUru-s (पूरु).[1] It is mentioned in the mantra as follows

यदि॑न्द्राग्नी॒ यदु॑षु तु॒र्वशे॑षु॒ यद् द्रु॒ह्युष्वनु॑षु पू॒रुषु॒ स्थः । अत॒: परि॑ वृषणा॒वा हि या॒तमथा॒ सोम॑स्य पिबतं सु॒तस्य॑ ॥८॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.108.8)

यदु The Yadu-s

Mentioned frequently in the Rigveda, they are the people born in the race of Yadu. The Yadavas are mentioned with the Parshu, which according to Sayanacharya's commentary the son of Parashu. In the Dasarajna yuddha, the battle of the ten kings, the Yadus took part against Sudas.[5] Indra is said to have crossed the ocean and brought back to the shores of Sapta-sindhu, the Yadu and Turvasa people who left their country and lived on the farther shores of the ocean as unanointed kings, probably in a new colony of their own (Rig. Veda. 4.30.17 and 6.20.12).[1]

तुर्वश The Turvasha-s

The Turvasas are mentioned along with the Yadu in many places. They lived in the west of Parushni i.e. in the region which existed between Vitasta and AsiknI. In the Rgvedic mantra 6.45.1, it is indicated that Yadu and Turvasas come from Paraavata i.e. a distant land or brought by Indra from that region. It is stated that later they merged with the Krivis, etc., to give rise to the Pancala people.[5]

द्रुह्यु The Druhyu-s

The Drhyu-s were as powerful as the Puru-s and Trkshu-s. They were the inhabitants of the region between Parushni in the east and Asikni in the west. Druhyu is regarded as one of the names of the five sons of Yayati.

अनु The Anu-s

The Anus are mentioned with the Druhyus, Yadus and Turvasas (Rigveda 1.108.8, 7.18.14, 8.10.5). Some scholars believe they dwelt on the Parushni river as per the mantra 7.18.14. They are also mentioned in the later texts as one of the five sons of Yayati who dwelt by the Parushni river.

The Puru-s

They are the most powerful among the five different people. Sayanacharya interprets the term "puru" as many. According to Yaska, PUru means man or supplicating men. They dwelt on the banks of the Sarasvati river as mentioned in the following mantra.

उ॒भे यत्ते॑ महि॒ना शु॑भ्रे॒ अन्ध॑सी अधिक्षि॒यन्ति॑ पू॒रव॑: ।... ॥२॥ (Rig. Veda. 7.96.2)

Supported by other scholarly views, C.V. Vaidya states that the Puru-s became prosperous and founded a kingdom in the present Ambala region on the banks of the river Sarasvati to which territory their representatives the Kurus eventually gave their name.

D.C. Sircar also states that these people were later merged with the Kuru people.67 Renou holdsthatthe tribe ofthe Puru wasthe most important, at a latertime it entered into alliance with theBharata, forming them with the new group ofthe Kuru. Together withthe Pancala (formerlytheKrivi), theKuru who hadestablished themselves in theDoab (which the later literature, fromtheirname, called the Kuruksetra), formed the centre ofthe Vedic culture.68 Trasadasyu, Purukutsa and Kurusravanawere the kings of the Purus, as mentioned in the Rgveda. The Purus, Turvasas, the Yadus and theAnus formed acoalition againstthe chiefoftheTrtsus called Sudasinthe battle. Due to constant clash, the Purus were divided into the Bharatas, Trtsu, Kus^ka etc.

The Rigveda is little concerned with the IkSvAkus as a people, inspite of the fact that it has the second most important dynasty of TRkSis, a branch of the Ikshvakus. The word Ikshvaku itself occurs only once in the Rgveda as a name of the Surya (10.60.4).[1]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Talageri. Shrikant. G, (2000) The Rigveda - A Historical Analysis. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Das, A. C. (1920) Rgvedic India, Cultural History of India as depicted in the Rgveda. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda. Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 515-531)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Deka, Barnali. (2015) Ph.D Thesis Title: A socio cultural study of the Rgvedasamhita. Gauhati University. (Chapter 5 : Geographical Information as recorded in the Rgvedasamhita)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas). Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 283-294)
  7. ↑ S. K. Acharya, Kunal Gosh, and Amal Kar (2020) Saraswati: The River par Excellence. Kolkata: The Asiatic Society (Pages 217-234)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture). Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 248-255)
Retrieved from ‘https://dharmawiki.org/index.php?title=Geographical_Aspects_in_Rigveda_(ऋग्वेदोक्त_भौगोलिकविषयाः)&oldid=132785’