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Line 2: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + − * धन्वदुर्गं ॥ Dhanvadurga+ − यत्पुरं दुर्गसम्पन्नं धान्यायुधसमन्वितम्। दृढप्राकारपरिखं हस्त्यश्वरथसङ्कुलम्॥ 12-86-6+ − * महीदुर्गं ॥ Mahidurga+ − * गिरिदुर्गं ॥ Giridurga+ − * मनुष्यदुर्गं ॥ Manushyadurga+ − * मृद्दुर्गं/ अब्दुर्गं ॥ Abdurga + − * वनदुर्गं ॥ Vanadurga − +
adding content and references
A Fort (Samskrit: दुर्गः), in the present context, refers to the ancient walled and protected building structures, to house the armies and it was also the residence of ruling monarch and his family members. Many of them were tall, stone structures of wide expanse, located in strategic positions and fortified in many ways to protect its inmates. Forts played a major role in land fights to defend a kingdom. Sanskrit literature possesses evidences for existence of forts right from the Vedic period. These architectural marvels stand testimony to ancient military might and intelligence. During earlier days, rulers ensured that their capital was fortified either naturally by water ways, mountainous paths and dense forests or artificially by building rampart walls, digging moats and growing thorny plants.
A Fort (Samskrit: दुर्गः), in the present context, refers to the ancient walled and protected building structures, to house the armies and it was also the residence of ruling monarch and his family members. Many of them were tall, stone structures of wide expanse, located in strategic positions and fortified in many ways to protect its inmates. Forts played a major role in land fights to defend a kingdom. Sanskrit literature possesses evidences for existence of forts right from the Vedic period. These architectural marvels stand testimony to ancient military might and intelligence. During earlier days, rulers ensured that their capital was fortified either naturally by water ways, mountainous paths and dense forests or artificially by building rampart walls, digging moats and growing thorny plants.
In the present day, forts, though remain as signs of our past history, give us significant insights into the strategies of warfare, the construction materials and town planning, the metals and alloys used for making both defense weapons as well as for domestic activities. They also give valuable information about how people of a particular region overcame the climate and natural environmental impediments using simple locally available materials and innovative ideas. Stepwell and water canals in Hampi, Karnataka and many other such monuments in various places in India stand testimony to the methods of water conservation and irrigation adopted within the citadels of rajas and maharajas of ancient days.
== परिचयः॥I ntroduction ==
Ancient rulers of India attached great importance to the construction and maintenance of forts and fortresses, for they served as the main base to defend the country against invasions of the enemy. Bhishma describes the qualities of such a place of residence of a raja to Yudhishtira,<blockquote>यत्पुरं दुर्गसम्पन्नं धान्यायुधसमन्वितम्। दृढप्राकारपरिखं हस्त्यश्वरथसङ्कुलम्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.6)</blockquote><blockquote>विद्वांसः शिल्पिनो यत्र निचयाश्च सुसञ्चिताः। धार्मिकश्च जनो यत्र दाक्ष्यमुत्तममास्थितः॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.7)</blockquote>Summary: Characteristically a raja should inhabit that kind of a place (fortress or city) which had the following features
* surrounded with strong gates and huge walls
* fortifications either natural or artificial
* water supply throughout all seasons
* filled with treasures
* having vidvat jana (learned people), shilpakaras (skilled people)
* having dharmik people and experts of all kinds of activities
* places of trade, exchange of goods and essentials
* granaries for storing various kinds of grains
* places of worship
* separate housing facilities for people supporting the administration
* garrison for large number of trained soldiers, horses and elephants
* weapons, fire-implements, yantras or machines for protection
* having a strong judicial system
* having place of music and arts
Further such a habitation should always be filled with strong people engaged in various social and cultural activities, where houses are built in an orderly manner, well decorated and people live fearlessly in them. Such a place should be filled with the sounds of vedic recitations and worship of devatas should continue uninterruptedly.<ref>Pt. Ramnarayandatt Shastri. ''Mahabharata of Veda Vyasa, Shanti Parva Volume 5 Hindi Translation.'' Gorakhpur: Gita Press (Pages 4647-4648)</ref>
== Literary References of Forts ==
Several ancient literary references to fortresses are available which are both interesting and valuable. Rigveda mentions about tribes living in fortifications known by पूर् । Pur, more like the suffix of city names used till date. Brahmana literature also features many references to citadels used by the rulers. In Kaushitaki Brahmana, Upaasadas are described as the citadels of Asuras. Interesting anecdote about the Tripurasuras, the three asura brothers who built cities of gold, silver and iron in different strata of earth and who were killed by Shiva, may be recollected in the puranas. It may be safely said that the use of forts was well known to the people of vedic times.<ref name=":2">Dikshitar, Ramachandra. V. R. (1944) ''War in Ancient India.'' London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd. (Page 247)</ref>
Among the Dharmashastras, Manusmrti details the kinds and usage of forts in general. According to Manu, <blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वार्क्षं एव वा । नृदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं वा समाश्रित्य वसेत्पुरम् । । ७.७० । ।</blockquote><blockquote>सर्वेण तु प्रयत्नेन गिरिदुर्गं समाश्रयेत् । एषां हि बाहुगुण्येन गिरिदुर्गं विशिष्यते । । ७.७१ । ।</blockquote><blockquote>एकः शतं योधयति प्राकारस्थो धनुर्धरः । शतं दशसहस्राणि तस्माद्दुर्गं विधीयते । । ७.७४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.74)</blockquote>In the Ramayana, we find extensive description of fort cities of Ayodhya of Ikshvaku dynasty and the Lankapuri of Ravanasura. Apart from description of the common features of a fort such as huge insurmountable walls, moats, openings covered with invisible obstructions, huge gates sealed with massive beams and bolts, gateways and broad passages, residential quarters, Hanuman refers to Attalakas which were places for locating both movable and immovable defense weapons and chaitya for the worship of the guardian deity of the country.
Mahabharata Shantiparva (राजधर्मानुशासनपर्व) also provides ample information about forts and warfare. According to Bhishma, a fort surrounded by a huge wall and a ditch full of water, furnished with only one entrance is the best (
== दुर्गभेदाः ॥ Kinds of Forts ==
== दुर्गभेदाः ॥ Kinds of Forts ==
References to six kinds of fortifications are found in Puranas (Agni Purana Adhyaya 106, Vishnupurana Adhyaya 3) and Mahabharata.<ref>Dikshitar, Ramachandra. V. R. (1944) ''War in Ancient India.'' London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd. (Page 247)</ref> <blockquote>षड्विधं दुर्गमास्थाय पुराण्यथ निवेशयेत्। सर्वसम्पत्प्रधानं यद्बाहुल्यं चापि सम्भवेत्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.4)</blockquote><blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं तथैव च। मनुष्यदुर्गं मृद्दुर्गं [अब्दुर्गं] वनदुर्गं च तानि षट्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.5)</blockquote>They are
References to six kinds of fortifications are found in Puranas (Agni Purana Adhyaya 106, Vishnupurana Adhyaya 3) and Mahabharata.<ref name=":2" /> In Shanti parva, (Adhyaya 86) Bhishma describes the place of residence of the rajas, and their forts, and the issues related to ruling the people. <blockquote>षड्विधं दुर्गमास्थाय पुराण्यथ निवेशयेत्। सर्वसम्पत्प्रधानं यद्बाहुल्यं चापि सम्भवेत्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.4)</blockquote><blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं तथैव च। मनुष्यदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वनदुर्गं च तानि षट्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.5)</blockquote>Summary: A raja has to build his new nagara/residence in a suitable wide area having all kinds of abundance, based on six kinds of fortitudes. They are as follows
# धन्वदुर्गं ॥ Dhanvadurga: Also called Marudurg (मरुदुर्गम्), it is a fort covered with sand on all sides.
# महीदुर्गं ॥ Mahidurga: A fort constructed underground in a plain area
# गिरिदुर्गं ॥ Giridurga: A fort constructed on the hills, surrounded by other high mountainous ranges.
# मनुष्यदुर्गं ॥ Manushyadurga: A fort made up of soldiers
# अब्दुर्गं ॥ Abdurga: A fort surrounded by water on all sides
# वनदुर्गं ॥ Vanadurga: A fort in the midst of thick forest area
According to Shukraniti, there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय) is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk. <blockquote>परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote>It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>
According to Shukraniti, there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय) is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk. <blockquote>परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote>It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>
== दुर्गनिर्माणम् ॥ Construction of Forts ==
== दुर्गनिर्माणम् ॥ Design of Forts ==
Kautilya’s Arthashastra in the Durgavidhanaadhyaya speaks at length about the construction and type of buildings to be raised within forts. It points out that the capital (स्थानीयम्) is to be fortified defensively on all sides either by means of water, mountain, desert or jungle. The first two types of fortification (water and mountain) are suited for dense populations and the remaining (desert and jungle) are good refuge-spots. This sthaniya is a place where treasury or samudhayasthana (समुदयस्थानम्)'' ''is located. Around the fort, three moats are dug out with a space of 1 danda (equal to 6 feet) in between them. Each of these moats being of 14, 12 and 10 dandas respectively. The depth of these moats corresponds to the width, which is either 3/4<sup>ths</sup> or 1/4<sup>ths</sup> of the width. The top area is 1/3<sup>rds</sup> of width and it is square at the bottom. Rampart walls are built at 4 dandas from the innermost ditch. They should be square at the bottom, oval at the centre and be planted with thorny plants and bushes. Above the rampart walls, parapet walls are to be built in odd or even numbers with intermediate spaces. Passage for flight and exit are also made.Towers are built with moveable staircase or ladder equal to their height. There are intermediate spaces of about 30 dandas between any 2 towers and a broad street is also formed with buildings covered with a roof. In between the tower and the street is the place for indrakosha, where 3 archers could be seated.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra in the Durgavidhanaadhyaya speaks at length about the construction and type of buildings to be raised within forts. It points out that the capital (स्थानीयम्) is to be fortified defensively on all sides either by means of water, mountain, desert or jungle. The first two types of fortification (water and mountain) are suited for dense populations and the remaining (desert and jungle) are good refuge-spots. This sthaniya is a place where treasury or samudhayasthana (समुदयस्थानम्)'' ''is located. Around the fort, three moats are dug out with a space of 1 danda (equal to 6 feet) in between them. Each of these moats being of 14, 12 and 10 dandas respectively. The depth of these moats corresponds to the width, which is either 3/4<sup>ths</sup> or 1/4<sup>ths</sup> of the width. The top area is 1/3<sup>rds</sup> of width and it is square at the bottom. Rampart walls are built at 4 dandas from the innermost ditch. They should be square at the bottom, oval at the centre and be planted with thorny plants and bushes. Above the rampart walls, parapet walls are to be built in odd or even numbers with intermediate spaces. Passage for flight and exit are also made.Towers are built with moveable staircase or ladder equal to their height. There are intermediate spaces of about 30 dandas between any 2 towers and a broad street is also formed with buildings covered with a roof. In between the tower and the street is the place for indrakosha, where 3 archers could be seated.