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Dhyana (Samskrit: ध्यानम्) refers to contemplation<ref name=":1" /> or meditation<ref name=":0" />, the 7th step in the path of Ashtanga Yoga expounded by Maharshi Patanjali. In fact, this path systematically developed and described by Maharshi Patanjali to enable union of the empirical self with the universal transcendental self in the Yoga Sutras is also known as 'Dhyana Yoga'.<ref name=":1">K. Ramakrishna Rao & Anand C. Paranjpe (2016), Psychology in the Indian Tradition, India: Springer.</ref>

Dhyana (Samskrit: ध्यानम्) refers to contemplation<ref name=":1" /> or meditation<ref name=":0" />, the 7th step in the path of [[Ashtanga Yoga (अष्टाङ्गयोगः)|Ashtanga Yoga]] expounded by Maharshi Patanjali. In fact, this path systematically developed and described by Maharshi Patanjali to enable union of the empirical [[Indian Concept of Self|self]] with the universal transcendental self in the Yoga Sutras is also known as 'Dhyana Yoga'.<ref name=":1">K. Ramakrishna Rao & Anand C. Paranjpe (2016), Psychology in the Indian Tradition, India: Springer.</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

The word 'Dhyana' is derived from the root 'dhyai' meaning ‘to think of’. Dhyana is usually translated as meditation, implying a state of calm.<ref name=":0" /> However, there are two ways of understanding the term meditation.   

The word 'Dhyana' is derived from the root 'dhyai' meaning ‘to think of’. Dhyana is usually translated as meditation, implying a state of calm.<ref name=":0" /> However, there are two ways of understanding the term meditation.   

* a technique to control the wanderings of the mind

* a technique to control the wanderings of the [[Manas (मनः)|mind]]

* a state of the mind where these wanderings are brought under control<ref name=":1" />

* a state of the mind where these wanderings are brought under control<ref name=":1" />

In Ashtanga Yoga, the practice of Dhyana follows the practice of the earlier steps. Namely, Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara and Dharana. In fact, Dhyana is a continuation of Dharana (Concentration). The continuous practice of Dharana eventually leads to Dhyana. For, meditation is nothing but a more mature state of concentration. <ref name=":0" /> The Yoga Sutra says,  <blockquote>तत्र प्रत्ययैकतानता ध्यानं ।। ३.२ ।।<ref>Yoga Sutras, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Pada 3 (Vibhuti Pada)]</ref> tatra pratyayaikatānatā dhyānaṁ ।। 3.2 ।।</blockquote>Meaning: An unbroken flow of knowledge to that object is Dhyana.  

In Ashtanga Yoga, the practice of Dhyana follows the practice of the earlier steps. Namely, [[Yama ( यमः )|Yama]], [[Niyama (नियमः)|Niyama]], [[Asanas (आसनानि)|Asana]], [[Pranayama (प्राणायामः)|Pranayama]], [[Pratyahara (प्रत्याहारः)|Pratyahara]] and [[Dharana (धारणा)|Dharana]]. In fact, Dhyana is a continuation of Dharana (Concentration). The continuous practice of Dharana eventually leads to Dhyana. For, meditation is nothing but a more mature state of concentration. <ref name=":0" /> The Yoga Sutra says,  <blockquote>तत्र प्रत्ययैकतानता ध्यानं ।। ३.२ ।।<ref>Yoga Sutras, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Pada 3 (Vibhuti Pada)]</ref> tatra pratyayaikatānatā dhyānaṁ ।। 3.2 ।।</blockquote>Meaning: An unbroken flow of knowledge to that object is Dhyana.  

Expaining this further Swami Vivekananda states,  

Expaining this further Swami Vivekananda states,  

* It keeps the mind calm and quiet.

* It keeps the mind calm and quiet.

* It increases concentration, memory, clarity of thought and will power.

* It increases concentration, memory, clarity of thought and will power.

* It rejuvenates body and mind.<ref name=":0">Yoga - Level B ([https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/OBE_indian_knowledge_tradition/Level_B/Yoga/Yoga_(Level-B)_ch-4-final.pdf Chapter 4]), Open Basic Education Programme (Bharatiya Jnana Parampara), Noida: National Institute of Open Schooling.</ref>

* It rejuvenates [[Sharira (शरीरम्)|body]] and mind.<ref name=":0">Yoga - Level B ([https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/OBE_indian_knowledge_tradition/Level_B/Yoga/Yoga_(Level-B)_ch-4-final.pdf Chapter 4]), Open Basic Education Programme (Bharatiya Jnana Parampara), Noida: National Institute of Open Schooling.</ref>

In fact, the practice of meditation is paramount in bringing about a transformation in one’s cognitive style, dispositions and emotional feeling.<ref name=":1" />

In fact, the practice of meditation is paramount in bringing about a transformation in one’s cognitive style, dispositions and emotional feeling.<ref name=":1" />

=== Means to Increase the Fire of Intelligence ===

=== Means to Increase the Fire of Intelligence ===

Yoga conceives human existence in the form of five sheaths or Koshas viz. annamaya kosha, pranamaya kosha, manomaya kosha, vijnanamaya kosha and Anandamaya kosha.<ref>Pandey A. (2022), [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362889666_Chapter_2_Human_Self_Work_and_of_Human_Being_Indian_Worldview_and_Implications_for_Management_Practices_and_Scholarship Human Self, Work and of Human Being: Indian Worldview and Implications for Management Practices and Scholarship], Indigenous Indian Management, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.</ref> Each of the five koshas or encasements of the atman has a different form of agni responsible for its development.

[[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] conceives human existence in the form of [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|five sheaths]] or Koshas viz. annamaya kosha, pranamaya kosha, manomaya kosha, vijnanamaya kosha and Anandamaya kosha.<ref>Pandey A. (2022), [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362889666_Chapter_2_Human_Self_Work_and_of_Human_Being_Indian_Worldview_and_Implications_for_Management_Practices_and_Scholarship Human Self, Work and of Human Being: Indian Worldview and Implications for Management Practices and Scholarship], Indigenous Indian Management, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.</ref> Each of the five koshas or encasements of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|atman]] has a different form of [[Agni in Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदे अग्निः)|agni]] responsible for its development.

The agni of intelligence is the fire of discrimination; the fire of the Vijnanamaya kosha, through which one discerns truth and falsehood, good and bad, right and wrong. The fire of the outer mind, manomaya kosha, is morally neutral. It simply digests impressions. The fire of intelligence digests these further, extracting their meaning, quality or content – their underlying idea. One's basic values and beliefs are constructed from it. The agni of intelligence builds up the body of dharma, one's field of insight and understanding.

The agni of intelligence is the fire of discrimination; the fire of the Vijnanamaya kosha, through which one discerns truth and falsehood, good and bad, right and wrong. The fire of the outer mind, manomaya kosha, is morally neutral. It simply digests impressions. The fire of intelligence digests these further, extracting their meaning, quality or content – their underlying idea. One's basic values and beliefs are constructed from it. The agni of intelligence builds up the body of [[Dharma (धर्मः)|dharma]], one's field of insight and understanding.

And meditation is the means of increasing one's fire of intelligence. For, the thoughts are the fuel and the witness consciousness is the fire. By remaining in the state of the seer, all things become fuel for awareness.<ref>David Frawley (1999), [https://archive.org/details/yogaayurvedaselfhealingandselfrealizationdavidfrawley_757_/mode/2up Yoga & Ayurveda], Wisconsin: Lotus Press.</ref>

And meditation is the means of increasing one's fire of intelligence. For, the thoughts are the fuel and the witness consciousness is the fire. By remaining in the state of the seer, all things become fuel for awareness.<ref>David Frawley (1999), [https://archive.org/details/yogaayurvedaselfhealingandselfrealizationdavidfrawley_757_/mode/2up Yoga & Ayurveda], Wisconsin: Lotus Press.</ref>

== ध्यानस्य परिणामाः ॥ Effects of Meditation ==

== ध्यानस्य परिणामाः ॥ Effects of Meditation ==

Contemporary research does suggest, if not establish, that practice of meditation may indeed produce some cognitive, emotive and conative effects that are not only interesting in themselves but also have positive applications for one’s health and well-being.<ref name=":1" />

Contemporary research suggests that practice of meditation may indeed produce some cognitive, emotive and conative effects that are not only interesting in themselves but also have positive applications for one’s health and well-being.<ref name=":1" />

=== Spiritual development ===

=== Spiritual Development ===

Yoga’s ultimate goal of kaivalya is linked with spiritual liberation and transformation of the person. Kristeller and Rikhye (2008) refer to two separate aspects relating to the effects of meditation on spiritual development.  

Yoga’s ultimate goal of kaivalya is linked with spiritual liberation and transformation of the person. In a research on Meditative traditions and contemporary pyschology, the authors Kristeller and Rikhye (2008) refer to two separate aspects relating to the effects of meditation on spiritual development.  

* those experiences that are accessible within a normal range of consciousness

* experiences that are accessible within a normal range of consciousness

* altered states encompassing mystical, psychic or paranormal effects” (p. 520).

* altered states encompassing mystical, psychic or paranormal effects

The link of meditation to health is obvious if we connect meditation with spiritual development. However, the main problem is defining spirituality and its identifying criteria.<ref name=":1" />

In fact, it is stated that the link of meditation to health is obvious when meditation is connected with spiritual development. However, the main problem is defining spirituality and its identifying criteria.<ref name=":1" />

=== Cognitive Effects ===

=== Cognitive Effects ===

Much of information processing cognitive activity goes on at the nonconscious subliminal level and involves various parts of the brain. Meditation involves focused attention. Further it also disengages the normal, habitual attentional processes such as scanning and analyzing so that the person can cultivate different kinds of engagement. This kind of disengagement from the usual and cultivation of new forms of engagement, as Kristeller and Rikhye (2008) point out, may be responsible for improved cognitive functions following meditation.

Much of information processing cognitive activity goes on at the nonconscious subliminal level and involves various parts of the brain. Meditation involves focused attention. Further it also disengages the normal, habitual attentional processes such as scanning and analyzing so that the person can cultivate different kinds of engagement. This kind of disengagement from the usual and cultivation of new forms of engagement may be responsible for improved cognitive functions following meditation.

There is evidence for improved memory, learning ability, and cognitive flexibility with practice of meditation. A meta-analysis of 34 studies related to cognition and meditation by Sedlmeier et al. (2008) support the notion that meditation may enhance cognitive skills involved in tasks of concentration and memory. Again, in the same analysis, six studies with intelligence test measures also show a positive effect with meditation.<ref name=":1" />

There is evidence for improved memory, learning ability and cognitive flexibility with practice of meditation. A meta-analysis of 34 studies related to cognition and meditation support the notion that meditation may enhance cognitive skills involved in tasks of concentration and memory. Again, in the same analysis, six studies with intelligence test measures also show a positive effect with meditation.<ref name=":1" />

=== Conative Effects ===

=== Conative Effects ===

In the Indian tradition, consciousness has two fundamental aspects, knowing (cit) and being (sat). Consciousness at the core is seen as undifferentiated unity of knowing and being. This is the rationale behind the Upaniṣadic statement, “to know Brahman is to be Brahman.” Yoga and meditation are believed to lead a person to the pure and primordial state of consciousness where there is no differentiation between knowing and being. A highly developed meditative state is one in which knowing has a reflexive relationship with being with the result that there would be no gap between one’s cognition and conduct, belief, and behavior. If this indeed is the case, meditation would have important therapeutic implications made possible by its expected behavioral effects. Consonance between cognition and conduct would have the consequence of a conflict-free mind, a state of positive mental health. In such states, knowing becomes a transformational experience for the person.

In the Indian tradition, consciousness has two fundamental aspects, knowing (chit) and being ([[Sat (सत्)|sat]]). Consciousness at the core is seen as undifferentiated unity of knowing and being. This is the rationale behind the Upanishadic statement, “to know [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] is to be Brahman.” Yoga and meditation are believed to lead a person to the pure and primordial state of consciousness where there is no differentiation between knowing and being. A highly developed meditative state is one in which knowing has a reflexive relationship with being with the result that there would be no gap between one’s cognition and conduct, belief and behavior. If this indeed is the case, meditation would have important therapeutic implications made possible by its expected behavioral effects. Consonance between cognition and conduct would have the consequence of a conflict-free mind, a state of positive mental health. In such states, knowing becomes a transformational experience for the person.

Several of health problems arise from our failure to put into practice what one knows. Most of the debilitating addictions such as alcoholism, smoking, and drug abuse are due to such a failure. Raina et al. (2001) reported results that showed significantly greater recovery rate of individuals with alcohol dependence syndrome following yoga treatment compared to physical exercise.<ref name=":1" />

Several of health problems arise from one's failure to put into practice what one knows. Most of the weakening addictions such as alcoholism, smoking and drug abuse are due to such a failure. A study in 2001 reported results that showed significantly greater recovery rate of individuals with alcohol dependence syndrome following yoga treatment compared to physical exercise.<ref name=":1" />

=== Emotional Effects ===

=== Emotional Effects ===

The practice of yoga, is generally believed to lead to an equipoise and emotionally balanced state of the mind. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that meditation may lead to reduction in anxiety and stress, and help those suffering from stress-related ailments like hypertension.

The practice of yoga, is believed to lead to an equipoise and emotionally balanced state of mind. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that meditation may lead to reduction in anxiety and stress, and help those suffering from stress-related ailments like hypertension.

There are a number of studies that seem to suggest that meditation has the effect of reducing stress. In one study the subjects were outpatients at the K.E.M. Hospital in Bombay aged between 15 and 50 years, who were diagnosed as suffering from stress and anxiety. They were randomly assigned to two groups. The clinical assessments, as well as psychological testing, were done by those who did not know to which group the subjects belonged. The results showed statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups. The experimental group improved significantly in comparison to the control group. There was a significant reduction in the anxiety scores of patients in the experimental group and not in the control group.

There are a number of studies that seem to suggest that meditation has the effect of reducing stress. In one study the subjects were outpatients at the K.E.M. Hospital in Bombay aged between 15 and 50 years, who were diagnosed as suffering from stress and anxiety. They were randomly assigned to two groups. The clinical assessments, as well as psychological testing, were done by those who did not know to which group the subjects belonged. The results showed statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups. The experimental group improved significantly in comparison to the control group. There was a significant reduction in the anxiety scores of patients in the experimental group and not in the control group.

There are also a number of published reports suggesting that practice of meditation helps to reduce stress, anxiety, tension and depression in different job settings.<ref name=":1" />

 

There are also a number of published reports suggesting that practice of meditation helps to reduce stress, anxiety, tension, and depression in different job settings.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==

== References ==