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Deva (Sanskrit: देव, Devá) means "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence", and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism.[1] Deva is masculine, and the related feminine '''equivalent is devi (unrelated to devil).''' Devas are benevolent supernatural beings in the Vedic era literature, with Indra (above) as their leader. The above gilt copper statue of Indra with inlaid semi-precious stones is from 16th-century Nepal.  

Deva (Sanskrit: देव, Devá) means "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence", and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism.[1] Deva is masculine, and the related feminine '''equivalent is devi (unrelated to devil).''' Devas are benevolent supernatural beings in the Vedic era literature, with Indra (above) as their leader. The above gilt copper statue of Indra with inlaid semi-precious stones is from 16th-century Nepal.  

'''In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Asuras.['''2][3] The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras. In post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.[4][5] In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their equally powerful, but malevolent half-brothers referred to as the Asuras.[6]

'''In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Asuras.['''2][3] The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Bharat's literature, and by the late Vedic period, benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras. In post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.[4][5] In some medieval Bharat's literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their equally powerful, but malevolent half-brothers referred to as the Asuras.[6]

Devas along with Asuras, Yaksha (nature spirits) and Rakshasas (ghosts, ogres) are part of Indian mythology, and Devas feature in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism.[7][8]

Devas along with Asuras, Yaksha (nature spirits) and Rakshasas (ghosts, ogres) are part of Bharat's mythology, and Devas feature in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism.[7][8]

 

Bas-relief of a devi in Angkor Wat, Cambodia

Bas-relief of a devi in Angkor Wat, Cambodia

Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE. Monier Williams translates it as "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones".[1][9] The concept also is used to refer to deity or god.[1]

Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE. Monier Williams translates it as "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones".[1][9] The concept also is used to refer to deity or god.[1]

The Sanskrit deva- derives from Indo-Iranian *dev- which in turn descends from the Proto-Indo-European word, *deiwos, originally an adjective meaning "celestial" or "shining", which is a (not synchronic Sanskrit) vrddhi derivative from the root *diw meaning "to shine", especially as the day-lit sky.[citation needed] The feminine form of *deiwos is *deiwih2, which descends into Indic languages as devi, in that context meaning "female deity". Also deriving from *deiwos, and thus cognates of deva, are Lithuanian Dievas (Latvian Dievs, Prussian Deiwas), Germanic Tiwaz (seen in English "Tuesday") and the related Old Norse Tivar (gods), and Latin deus "god" and divus "divine", from which the English words "divine", "deity", French "dieu", Portuguese "deus", Spanish "dios" and Italian "dio", also "Zeys/Ζεύς" - "Dias/Δίας", the Greek father of the gods, are derived.[citation needed] It is related to *Dyeus which while from the same root, may originally have referred to the "heavenly shining father", and hence to "Father Sky", the chief God of the Indo-European pantheon, continued in Sanskrit Dyaus. The bode of the Devas is Dyuloka.[citation needed]

The Sanskrit deva- derives from Indo-Iranian *dev- which in turn descends from the Proto-Indo-European word, *deiwos, originally an adjective meaning "celestial" or "shining", which is a (not synchronic Sanskrit) vrddhi derivative from the root *diw meaning "to shine", especially as the day-lit sky.[citation needed] The feminine form of *deiwos is *deiwih2, which descends into Indic languages as devi, in that context meaning "female deity". Also deriving from *deiwos, and thus cognates of deva, are Lithuanian Dievas (Latvian Dievs, Prussian Deiwas), Germanic Tiwaz (seen in English "Tuesday") and the related Old Norse Tivar (gods), and Latin deus "god" and divus "divine", from which the English words "divine", "deity", French "dieu", Portuguese "deus", Spanish "dios" and Italian "dio", also "Zeys/Ζεύς" - "Dias/Δίας", the Greek father of the gods, are derived.[citation needed] It is related to *Dyeus which while from the same root, may originally have referred to the "heavenly shining father", and hence to "Father Sky", the chief God of the Indo-European pantheon, continued in Sanskrit Dyaus. The bode of the Devas is Dyurloka.[citation needed]

According to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean "a shining one," from *div- "to shine," and it is a cognate with Greek dios "divine" and Zeus, and Latin deus "god" (Old Latin deivos).[10]

According to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean "a shining one," from *div- "to shine," and it is a cognate with Greek dios "divine" and Zeus, and Latin deus "god" (Old Latin deivos).[10]

Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi.[11] Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea.[12] When capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism.[13] Deva is also referred to as Devatā,[9] while Devi as Devika.[11]

Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi.[11] Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea.[12] When capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism.[13] Deva is also referred to as Devatā,[9] while Devi as Devika.[11]

The word Deva is also a proper name or part of name in Indian culture, where it refers to "one who wishes to excel, overcome" or the "seeker of, master of or a best among-".[1]

The word Deva is also a proper name or part of name in Bharat's culture, where it refers to "one who wishes to excel, overcome" or the "seeker of, master of or a best among-".[1]

 

Main article: Rigvedic deities

Main article: Rigvedic deities

In Vedic literature, Deva is not a monotheistic God, rather a "supernatural, divine" concept manifesting in various ideas and knowledge, in a form that combine excellence in some aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects, heroic in their outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires.[24][25]

In Vedic literature, Deva is not a monotheistic God, rather a "supernatural, divine" concept manifesting in various ideas and knowledge, in a form that combine excellence in some aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects, heroic in their outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires.[24][25]

Max Muller states that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every single of different devas as "the only one, the supreme, the greatest".[9] Muller concluded that the Vedic ideas about devas is best understood neither as polytheism nor as monotheism, but as henotheism where gods are equivalent, different perspective, different aspects of reverence and spirituality, unified by principles of Ṛta and Dharma.[9][26]

Max Muller states that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every single of different devas as "the only one, the supreme, the greatest".[9] Muller concluded that the Vedic ideas about devas is best understood neither as polytheism nor as monotheism, but as henotheism where gods are equivalent, different perspective, different aspects of reverence and adhyatmikity, unified by principles of Ṛta and Dharma.[9][26]

Characteristics of Devas in the Vedic literature[edit]

Characteristics of Devas in the Vedic literature[edit]

All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts. A much studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with Asura adevah (Asuras who are not Devas).[32][33] They are born from the same father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor; the elder sons are envisioned as the Asuras, the younger as the Devas.[34] They all share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.[30][35]

All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts. A much studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with Asura adevah (Asuras who are not Devas).[32][33] They are born from the same father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor; the elder sons are envisioned as the Asuras, the younger as the Devas.[34] They all share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.[30][35]

Upanishads[edit]

== Upanishads ==

 

Vishnu (above) is one of the Vedic Devas.[36] The third Valli of the Katha Upanishad discusses ethical duties of man through the parable of the chariot as a means to realize the state of Vishnu, one with Self-knowledge.[37][38]

Vishnu (above) is one of the Vedic Devas.[36] The third Valli of the Katha Upanishad discusses ethical duties of man through the parable of the chariot as a means to realize the state of Vishnu, one with Self-knowledge.[37][38]

The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras. The Kaushitaki Upanishad, for example, in Book 4 states that "Indra was weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his own Atman (soul, self).[39] Once Indra had self-knowledge, he became independent, sovereign and victorious over the Asuras"; similarly, states Kaushitaki Upanishad, "the man who knows his inner self gains independence, sovereignty and is unaffected by all evil".[39]

The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras. The Kaushitaki Upanishad, for example, in Book 4 states that "Indra was weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his own Atman (soul, self).[39] Once Indra had self-knowledge, he became independent, sovereign and victorious over the Asuras"; similarly, states Kaushitaki Upanishad, "the man who knows his inner self gains independence, sovereignty and is unaffected by all evil".[39]

Chapter 3.5.2 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes Devas, Men and Asuras as sons of Prajapati, the primordial father.[41] Each asks for a lesson on ethics. Prajapati tells the Devas to observe the virtue of temperance (self-restraint, Dama), the Men to observe the virtue of charity (Dana), and Asuras to observe the virtue of compassion (Daya). At the end of the chapter, the Upanishad declares that these are three cardinal virtues that should always be observed by all Devas, Men and Asuras.[41]

Chapter 3.5.2 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes Devas, Men and Asuras as sons of Prajapati, the primordial father.[41] Each asks for a lesson on ethics. Prajapati tells the Devas to observe the virtue of temperance (self-restraint, Dama), the Men to observe the virtue of charity (Dana), and Asuras to observe the virtue of compassion (Daya). At the end of the chapter, the Upanishad declares that these are three cardinal virtues that should always be observed by all Devas, Men and Asuras.[41]

Medieval era Indian scholars, in their Bhasya (review and commentaries) on the Upanishads, stated that the discussion of Devas and Asuras in the Upanishads is symbolic, and it represents the good and evil that resides and struggles within each human being. Adi Shankara, for example, in his commentary on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserted that Devas represent the human seeking for the sacred and spiritual, while the Asuras represent the human seeking for the worldly excesses.[42] Edelmann and other modern era scholars also state that the Devas versus Asuras discussion in Upanishads is a form of symbolism.[43][44]

Medieval era Bharat's scholars, in their Bhasya (review and commentaries) on the Upanishads, stated that the discussion of Devas and Asuras in the Upanishads is symbolic, and it represents the good and evil that resides and struggles within each human being. Adi Shankara, for example, in his commentary on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserted that Devas represent the human seeking for the sacred and adhyatmik, while the Asuras represent the human seeking for the worldly excesses.[42] Edelmann and other modern era scholars also state that the Devas versus Asuras discussion in Upanishads is a form of symbolism.[43][44]

In the later primary Upanishadic texts, Devas and Asuras discuss and act to seek knowledge, for different purposes. In one case, for example, they go to Prajāpati, their father, to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.[45] Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.[45]

In the later primary Upanishadic texts, Devas and Asuras discuss and act to seek knowledge, for different purposes. In one case, for example, they go to Prajāpati, their father, to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.[45] Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.[45]

Symbolism[edit]

Symbolism[edit]

Edelmann states that the dichotomies present in the Puranas literature of Hinduism are symbolism for spiritual concepts. For example, god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.[45] Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".[45]

Edelmann states that the dichotomies present in the Puranas literature of Hinduism are symbolism for adhyatmik concepts. For example, god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.[45] Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".[45]

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.[56] In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as Mahabali and Prahlada, conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.[56]

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a adhyatmik concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.[56] In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as Mahabali and Prahlada, conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.[56]

Classical Hinduism[edit]

Classical Hinduism[edit]

Devas as guide or creative energy – Vasatkara, Prajāpati

Devas as guide or creative energy – Vasatkara, Prajāpati

References[edit]

References[edit]

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 492

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 492

Jump up ^ Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102

Jump up ^ Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102

Jump up ^ Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121

Jump up ^ Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121

^ Jump up to: a b Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791445280, pages 59-76

^ Jump up to: a b Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Bharat's, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791445280, pages 59-76

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 253-262

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 253-262

Jump up ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica

Jump up ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica

Jump up ^ Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004256156, pages 23-29

Jump up ^ Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Bharat's Cosmology, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004256156, pages 23-29

Jump up ^ Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719018664, page 67

Jump up ^ Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719018664, page 67

^ Jump up to: a b c d Klaus Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 101-102

^ Jump up to: a b c d Klaus Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, pages 101-102

Jump up ^ Deva Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper (2015)

Jump up ^ Deva Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper (2015)

^ Jump up to: a b Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 496

^ Jump up to: a b Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 496

Jump up ^ John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814912, page 2

Jump up ^ John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814912, page 2

Jump up ^ John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814912, pages 18-21

Jump up ^ John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814912, pages 18-21

Jump up ^ The Rig Veda Samhita Verse 11, HH Wilson (Translator), Royal Asiatic Society, WH Allen & Co, London

Jump up ^ The Rig Veda Samhita Verse 11, HH Wilson (Translator), Royal Asiatic Society, WH Allen & Co, London

Jump up ^ George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195332612, pages 24-33

Jump up ^ George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195332612, pages 24-33

^ Jump up to: a b Bina Gupta (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415800037, pages 21-25

^ Jump up to: a b Bina Gupta (2011), An Introduction to Bharat's Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415800037, pages 21-25

Jump up ^ John Bowker (2014), God: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198708957, pages 88-96

Jump up ^ John Bowker (2014), God: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198708957, pages 88-96

Jump up ^ Ivan Strenski (2015), Understanding Theories of Religion: An Introduction, 2nd Edition, Wiley, ISBN 978-1444330847, page 42

Jump up ^ Ivan Strenski (2015), Understanding Theories of Religion: An Introduction, 2nd Edition, Wiley, ISBN 978-1444330847, page 42

Jump up ^ Max Muller, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.1 Oxford University Press, page 78 with footnote 2

Jump up ^ Max Muller, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.1 Oxford University Press, page 78 with footnote 2

Jump up ^ Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466

Jump up ^ Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466

Jump up ^ Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 130-131

Jump up ^ Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Bharat's Art, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 130-131

^ Jump up to: a b c d Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441

^ Jump up to: a b c d Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441

^ Jump up to: a b Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 610-629

^ Jump up to: a b Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 610-629

On Translation: Māyā, Deva, Tapas Ananda Coomaraswamy, Isis, Vol. 19, No. 1, pages 74-91 (on alternate meanings of Devas)

On Translation: Māyā, Deva, Tapas Ananda Coomaraswamy, Isis, Vol. 19, No. 1, pages 74-91 (on alternate meanings of Devas)

Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India Brian K. Smith (1986), Numen, Vol. 33, Fasc. 1, pages 65-89 (on the role of knowledge in empowering the Deva nature in man)

Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India Brian K. Smith (1986), Numen, Vol. 33, Fasc. 1, pages 65-89 (on the role of knowledge in empowering the Deva nature in man)