Changes

== परिचय || Introduction ==

== परिचय || Introduction ==

The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.<ref name=":0222">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0595384556</nowiki>, pages 8-14</ref> The Samhitas are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as ''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related section).<ref name=":0222" /> The Aranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.<ref name=":0222">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0595384556</nowiki>, pages 8-14</ref> The Samhitas are sometimes identified as कर्म खण्ड || ''karma-kanda'' (action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as ज्ञान खण्ड || ''jnana-kanda'' (knowledge/spirituality-related section).<ref name=":0222" /> The Aranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the Jnana-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.<ref name=":1222"><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the Jnana-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.<ref name=":1222"><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>

== Etymology ==

== Etymology ==

The word {{lang|2=ब्राह्मणम्}} Brahmana in neuter gender means Brahmana texts. One wonders why these literary compositions are given this name even though the authors of Brahmanas and their commentators have not offered any definition of this word.  

The word {{lang|2=ब्राह्मणम्}} || Brahmana in neuter gender means Brahmana texts. One wonders why these literary compositions are given this name even though the authors of Brahmanas and their commentators have not offered any definition of this word.  

* According to '''Shatapatha Braahmana''' the word "Brahma" means the samhita part of the four vedas (Shat. Brah. 7.1.1.5). The collection of mantras from these samhita parts of the four vedas are termed as Braahmanas.  

* According to '''Shatapatha Braahmana''' the word "Brahma" means the samhita part of the four vedas (Shat. Brah. 7.1.1.5). The collection of mantras from these samhita parts of the four vedas are termed as Braahmanas.  

* '''आरस्तम्ब Apastamba''' defines Brahmanas as ‘कर्मचोदना ब्राह्मणानि Karmacodana Brahmanani’ meaning Brahmanas are injunctions for the performance of sacrificial rites (Apasthamba Shrau. Sut. 34 and 35).  

* '''आपस्तम्ब || Apastamba''' defines Brahmanas as ‘कर्मचोदना ब्राह्मणानि || Karmacodana Brahmanani’ meaning Brahmanas are injunctions for the performance of sacrificial rites (Apasthamba Shrau. Sut. 34 and 35).  

* '''Jaimini Purvameemamsa darshana''' says "what is not a mantra the rest of it is brahmana शेषे ब्राह्मण शब्दः " (2.1.33)  

* '''Jaimini Purvameemamsa darshana''' says शेषे ब्राह्मण शब्दः || sheshe brahmana shabdah ("what is not a mantra the rest of it is brahmana") (2.1.33)  

* '''Sayanaacharya''' has said in the introduction of his commentary on the Rigveda:  

* '''Sayanaacharya''' has said in the introduction of his commentary on the Rigveda:  

<blockquote>''"Which in tradition is not a hymn or a Mantra is a Brahmana and which is not Brahmana is a Mantra".''</blockquote>The term 'Brahmana' has been variously interpreted by the scholars. It comes from the word ब्रह्मन् ''Brahman'' which means both the Veda and the Mantra - "''Brahma Vai Mantrah''." Thus the word Brahmana means 'that which relates to ''Brahman'' or the Veda'. It is derived from the root brih 'to grow', 'to expand'.

<blockquote>''"Which in tradition is not a hymn or a Mantra is a Brahmana and which is not Brahmana is a Mantra".''</blockquote>The term 'Brahmana' has been variously interpreted by the scholars. It comes from the word ब्रह्मन् || ''Brahman'' which means ब्रह्म वै मन्त्रः || "''Brahma Vai Mantrah''"(both the Veda and the Mantra). Thus the word Brahmana means 'that which relates to ''Brahman'' or the Veda'. It is derived from the root बृः || brih 'to grow', 'to expand'.

In other words, the name 'Brahmana' means the explanation of a ritual by a learned priest. Later this word came to mean a collection of such explanations by the priest on the science of sacrifice. The Brahmanas are thus the ritual text-books on the details of sacrifice or ''Yajna''.

In other words, the name 'Brahmana' means the explanation of a ritual by a learned priest. Later this word came to mean a collection of such explanations by the priest on the science of sacrifice. The Brahmanas are thus the ritual text-books on the details of sacrifice or ''Yajna''.

''Brahmanas'' lack a homogeneous structure across the different Vedas, with some containing chapters that constitute [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]] or [[Upanishad|Upanishads]] in their own right.  Each Vedic ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own ''Brahmana''. Numerous ''Brahmana'' texts existed in ancient India, many of which have been lost. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety.

''Brahmanas'' lack a homogeneous structure across the different Vedas, with some containing chapters that constitute [[Aranyaka|Aranyakas]] or [[Upanishad|Upanishads]] in their own right.  Each Vedic शाखा || ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own ''Brahmana''. Numerous ''Brahmana'' texts existed in ancient India, many of which have been lost. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety.

== Dating of Brahmanas ==

== Dating of Brahmanas ==

The dating of the final codification of the ''Brahmanas'' and associated Vedic texts is controversial. The oldest is dated to about 900 [[BCE]], while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name="ebri22">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref><ref name="mw22">[[Michael Witzel]], "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.</ref><ref name="bcp22">Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521343541, pages 42-43</ref> According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and early Upanishads took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).<ref name="kklo22">Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, page 67</ref>

The dating of the final codification of the ''Brahmanas'' and associated Vedic texts is controversial. The oldest is dated to about 900 [[BCE]], while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE. According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and early Upanishads took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).

Erdosy suggests that the later Brahmanas were composed during a period of urbanisation and considerable social change.<ref>Erdosy, George, ed, ''The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity'', New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1995</ref> This period also saw significant developments in mathematics, geometry, biology and grammar.<ref>Doniger, Wendy, ''The Hindus, An Alternative History'', Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-959334-7, pbk</ref>

Erdosy suggests that the later Brahmanas were composed during a period of urbanisation and considerable social change. This period also saw significant developments in mathematics, geometry, biology and grammar.

== Contents ==

== Contents ==

According to Apasthamba , these texts deal with the following six topics: Vidhi Arthavada , Ninda, Prashansha , Purakalpa and Parakriti.

According to Apasthamba , these texts deal with the following six topics: Vidhi Arthavada , Ninda, Prashansha , Purakalpa and Parakriti.

# ''Vidhi'' means injunctions for the performance of particular rites.

# ''विधि || Vidhi'' means injunctions for the performance of particular rites.

# ''Arthavada'' comprises the numerous explanatory remarks on the meaning of Mantras and particular rites.

# ''अर्थवाद || Arthavada'' comprises the numerous explanatory remarks on the meaning of Mantras and particular rites.

# ''Ninda'' or censure consists in criticism and, refutation of the opponents' views.

# ''निन्दा  || Ninda'' or censure consists in criticism and, refutation of the opponents' views.

# ''Sthuti or Prashansha'' means eulogy, recommendation.

# ''स्थुति || Sthuti or प्रशन्सा || Prashansha'' means eulogy, recommendation.

# ''Puraakalpa'' refers to the performance of sacrificial rites in former times.

# ''पुराकल्प || Puraakalpa'' refers to the performance of sacrificial rites in former times.

# ''Parakriti'' means the achievements of others.

# ''पराकृति || Parakriti'' means the achievements of others.

The main subject of the Brahmanas is injunction (Vidhi), all other topics being subservient to it. Sayana states that performance of vedic activities is inspired by vidhi and arthavaada only "Dvividham braahmanam vidhihi anuvaadascha" (Rig bhashya bhu 9). Thus, they may be classified differently. Shabara, in his commentary, has summed up their subjects into ten following heads:

The main subject of the Brahmanas is injunction (Vidhi), all other topics being subservient to it. Sayana states that performance of vedic activities is inspired by vidhi and arthavaada only:

# ''Hetu'' - reasons

 

# ''Nirvacana'' - etymology

द्विविधम् ब्राह्मनाम् विधिहि अनुवादस्च || "Dvividham braahmanam vidhihi anuvaadascha" (Rig bhashya bhu 9).

# ''Ninda'' - censure ,condemn

 

# ''Prashansha'' - eulogy, praise

Thus, they may be classified differently. Shabara, in his commentary, has summed up their subjects into ten following heads:

# ''Sanshaya'' - doubt,uncertainty

# ''हेतु || Hetu'' - reasons

# ''Vidhi'' - injunction,sanction

# ''निर्वचन || Nirvacana'' - etymology

# ''Parakriya'' - feats/deeds of others

# ''निन्दा || Ninda'' - censure ,condemn

# ''Purakalpa'' - legendary background

# ''प्रशन्सा || Prashansha'' - eulogy, praise

# ''Vyavadharana''- Kalpana - managerial application

# ''संशय || Sanshaya'' - doubt,uncertainty

# ''Upamana'' - illustration.

# ''विधि || Vidhi'' - injunction,sanction

# ''पराक्रिया || Parakriya'' - feats/deeds of others

# ''पुरकल्प || Purakalpa'' - legendary background

# ''व्यवधारण कल्पना || Vyavadharana''- Kalpana - managerial application

# ''उपमान || Upamana'' - illustration.

''Yajna'' is not only sacrifice. In Brahmanas we find it as symbolic also. Here it often represents the knowledge of creation and thus describes the secrets of creation.

''Yajna'' is not only sacrifice. In Brahmanas we find it as symbolic also. Here it often represents the knowledge of creation and thus describes the secrets of creation.

=== (A) Rigveda ===

=== (A) Rigveda ===

There are two available brahamanas associated with Rig veda.

There are two available brahamanas associated with Rig veda.

# '''Aitareya Brahmana'''  :  It consists of 40 ''adhyayas'' (lessons, chapters), dealing with Soma sacrifice, and in particular the fire sacrifice ritual.   

# '''ऐतरेय ब्राह्मण || Aitareya Brahmana'''  :  It consists of 40 अध्याय || ''adhyayas'' (lessons, chapters), dealing with Soma sacrifice, and in particular the fire sacrifice ritual.   

# '''Kaushitaki / Sankhayana Brahmana''' : It consists of 30 chapters, the first six of which are dedicated to food sacrifice, and the remaining to Soma sacrifice in a manner matching the Aitareya Brahmana.   

# '''कौषितकी / सङ्खयन  ब्राह्मण || Kaushitaki / Sankhayana Brahmana''' : It consists of 30 chapters, the first six of which are dedicated to food sacrifice, and the remaining to Soma sacrifice in a manner matching the Aitareya Brahmana.   

Earlier Rig samhita was supposed to have 21 shakas and each shaka had an associated brahmana. Four of the Rig samhita brahmanas namely Paingi, Bahvrucha, Aashvalayana, Gaalava brahmanas are lost in time.  Some say that Bahvrucha brahmana is the same as Aitareya brahmana.   

Earlier Rig samhita was supposed to have 21 shakas and each shaka had an associated brahmana. Four of the Rig samhita brahmanas namely Paingi, Bahvrucha, Aashvalayana, Gaalava brahmanas are lost in time.  Some say that बहुव्रुच ब्राह्मण || Bahvrucha brahmana is the same as Aitareya brahmana.   

=== (B) Yajus Samhita ===

=== (B) Yajus Samhita ===

# '''Krishna-Yajurveda''' : (1) Taittiriya Brahmana is available.  

# '''Krishna-Yajurveda''' : (1) Taittiriya Brahmana is available.  

The Satapatha Brahmana consists of a hundred ''adhyayas'' (chapters), and is the most cited and famous among the Brahmana texts. Much of the text is commentaries on Vedic rituals, such as the preparation of the fire altar. It also includes [[Upanayana]], a ceremony that marked the start of [[Brahmacharya]] (student) stage of life, as well as the Vedic era recitation practice of [[Svādhyāya|Svadhyaya]].<ref name="winter32" /> The text describes procedures for other important Hindu rituals such as a funeral ceremony. The old and famous [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] form the closing chapters of Śatapatha Brahmana.

The Satapatha Brahmana consists of a hundred अध्याय || ''adhyayas'' (chapters), and is the most cited and famous among the Brahmana texts. Much of the text is commentaries on Vedic rituals, such as the preparation of the fire altar. It also includes [[Upanayana]], a ceremony that marked the start of [[Brahmacharya]] (student) stage of life, as well as the Vedic era recitation practice of [[Svādhyāya|Svadhyaya]]. The text describes procedures for other important Hindu rituals such as a funeral ceremony. The old and famous [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] form the closing chapters of Śatapatha Brahmana.

Twelve Yajus samhita related brahmanas have been lost in time.  They are Charaka, Svetasvatara, Kaathaka, or Shataadhyayana, Maitraayani, Jaabala, Khandikeya, Oukheya, Haridravika, Tumburu, Aavhvaraka, Kankati, Chaagaleya brahmanas.

Twelve Yajus samhita related brahmanas have been lost in time.  They are Charaka, Svetasvatara, Kaathaka, or Shataadhyayana, Maitraayani, Jaabala, Khandikeya, Oukheya, Haridravika, Tumburu, Aavhvaraka, Kankati, Chaagaleya brahmanas.

=== (D) Samaveda ===

=== (D) Samaveda ===

# '''Jaimineeya Brahmana''' or Talavakaara is the principal Brahmana of the Jaiminiya shakha, divided into three ''kanda''s (sections). One of the oldest Brahmanas, older than Tandya Mahabrahmana, but only fragments of manuscript have survived.<ref name="winter32">[[Moriz Winternitz]] (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 178-180</ref>

# '''जैमिनीय ब्राह्मण || Jaimineeya Brahmana''' or Talavakaara is the principal Brahmana of the Jaiminiya shakha, divided into three खण्ड || ''kanda''s (sections). One of the oldest Brahmanas, older than Tandya Mahabrahmana, but only fragments of manuscript have survived.

# '''Taandya''' (Proudha or {{IAST|Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa}}) is the principal Brahmana of both the Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas. This is one of the oldest Brahmanas and includes twenty five books. It is notable for its important ancient legends and ''Vratyastomas''.

# '''तानद्य || Taandya''' (Proudha or {{IAST|Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa}}) is the principal Brahmana of both the Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas. This is one of the oldest Brahmanas and includes twenty five books. It is notable for its important ancient legends and ''Vratyastomas''.

# '''Chandogya''' (Mantra) Brahmana are the three primarily available brahmanas. Chandogya Brahmana is divided into ten ''prapathaka''s (chapters). Its first two ''prapathaka''s (chapters) form the Mantra Brahmana and each of them is divided into eight ''khanda''s (sections). Prapathakas 3–10 form the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].

# '''छान्दोग्य || Chandogya''' (Mantra) Brahmana are the three primarily available brahmanas. Chandogya Brahmana is divided into ten प्रपथक || ''prapathaka''s (chapters). Its first two ''prapathaka''s (chapters) form the Mantra Brahmana and each of them is divided into eight ''khanda''s (sections). Prapathakas 3–10 form the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].

Four Upabrahmanas or Anubrahmanas for Samaveda include - (1) Saamavidhana Brahmana (2) Devatadhyaya or Daivata Brahmana (3) Vamsha Brahmana (4) Simhatopanishad brahmana  

Four Upabrahmanas or Anubrahmanas for Samaveda include - (1) Saamavidhana Brahmana (2) Devatadhyaya or Daivata Brahmana (3) Vamsha Brahmana (4) Simhatopanishad brahmana  

== References ==

== References ==

# A. C. Banerjea, ''Studies in the Brāhmaṇas'', Motilal Banarsidass (1963)

# A. C. Banerjea, ''Studies in the Brāhmaṇas'', Motilal Banarsidass (1963)

# E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, ''Kauṣītaki-Brāhmaṇa'', Wiesbaden (1968, comm. 1976).

# E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, ''Kauṣītaki-Brāhmaṇa'', Wiesbaden (1968, comm. 1976).