Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)

Brahman (Samskrit : ब्रह्मन्) in general signifies the Absolute, Eternal, Changeless, Infinite element without attributes, qualities beyond name and form, yet all encompassing the universe called variously as Brahman, Purusha, Parabrahma, Satya.

IT, that nameless, formless supreme being is the goal of a sadhaka engaged in the practice of Paravidya, (the Brahmavidya) knowing which is the Supreme Wisdom (Jnana) achieved through the paths laid down in the various texts, discussed through ages in the Upanishads and Brahmasutras.

While the samskrit word Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) used in this article is a pratipadika (a stem), this entity is referred to mostly as Brahma padarth or Parabrahma, Paramatma etc in the various texts. The first case ending of Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is Brahma (ब्रह्मा) which should not be confused with the deity Brahma who is the creator among the trimurthis (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva).

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

An abstract but highly discussed word, Brahman, is the core of the Vedanta and Upanishad texts, a concept fundamental and unique to Sanatana Dharma. No other philosophy in the world, in the history of thought, has evolved and discussed the concept of Brahman; it is the most ancient mystery of the worlds.

All Bharatiya sampradayas are unified in agreeing to the existence in an attributeless supreme entity, while variations amongst them are seen only with respect to the path followed to understand and experience Brahman.

वेदान्तमते ‘वस्तु सच्चिदानन्दाद्वयं ब्रह्म तथा अज्ञानादिसकलजडसमूहोऽवस्तु ।’ ‘ब्रह्मैव नित्यं वस्तु तदन्यदखिलमनित्यम् ।’

vedāntamate ‘vastu saccidānandādvayaṁ brahma tathā ajñānādisakalajaḍasamūho'vastu ।’ ‘brahmaiva nityaṁ vastu tadanyadakhilamanityam ।

व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology

Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is derived from the dhatus बृहँ and बृहिँ in the meaning of वृद्धौ (vrddhi) - बृंहति वर्द्धते निरतिशयमहत्त्व-लक्षणवृद्धिमान् भवतीत्यर्थः - to expand, grow, enlarge, one which is beyond comparison. It is used to explain the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme force which is attributeless.

Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of a deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self.

It is distinct from:

• A Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्) which is the prose explanation of the mantras, one of the four divisions of the Vedic texts.
• A Brahmana (ब्राह्मणः) (masculine) is one who belongs to the Brahmana varna (first of the four varnas); in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as Brahmin (ब्राह्मणः).
• Brahma (ब्रह्मा) is a deity who has the role of the creator among the Trimurtis, having a lifetime measured in kalpas (see Kala)
• Ishvara (ईश्वरः), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and a personal Brahman.

Evolution of Concept of Brahman

The Upanishads which develop ideas that are in germ in the Veda Samhitas are the only source of definite knowledge, to answer the questions which ever baffled the human mind. Questions that man has been trying to answer from ages include

• whether our personality survives death?
• where does man go after death?
• is there existence of life in a world called heaven?
• does he ever return to this world?
• what is the final goal of life?
• what is nature of the final goal of the world?
• what is the nature and definition of the supreme entity that man believes in?
• nature of Atman (individual Jivatma) and its relationship with other Jagat (world) and with Supreme entity (Brahman)?
• what is the ultimate truth of existence?
• how did the universe originate?

Obviously no other knowledge source has ever attempted to answer such questions and it is only Upanishads and other Vedanta texts that give us the last word on all such matters apart from practicing what is given in them. Through no other means is it possible for us to get convincing answers to our queries regarding them. Not being the work of man (Apaurusheya) Upanishads are free from the usual shortcomings of all human endeavor such as error, doubt, and deception. It is open to us all to verify their statements by actual experience along the lines prescribed by them. The truths inculcated in them are not mere theories, but facts, and as such are invulnerable.

Questions

Any doctrine or siddhanta about Brahman involves theories explaining certain common groups of questions

• emergence, sustenance and dissolution of the world (ontology)
• what is real and the principles applying to Universe, Atman, Brahman etc (metaphysics)
• nature of things - sentient and insentient things, Brahman and others.
• study of means of understanding knowledge, example Pramanas (epistemology)
• relationship between individual Jivatmas, the inanimate matter (Jagat), Supreme Being (Ishvara)
• modes of attaining the final goal Moksha (soteriology)
• essence and value attributed to Brahman and other aspects of Vedanta (axiology)

Shvetasvatara Upanishad in the very first mantra puts forth these questions as deliberated by the Brahmavadins

ॐ ब्रह्मवादिनो वदन्ति ।

किं कारणं ब्रह्म कुतः स्म जाता जीवाम केन क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा । अधिष्ठिताः केन सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे ब्रह्मविदो व्यवस्थाम् ॥ १ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1)

oṁ brahmavādino vadanti ।

kiṁ kāraṇaṁ brahma kutaḥ sma jātā jīvāma kena kva ca sampratiṣṭhā । adhiṣṭhitāḥ kena sukhetareṣu vartāmahe brahmavido vyavasthām ॥ 1 ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1)

Summary : People accustomed to deliberate on Brahman discuss : What is the nature of Brahman, the Source (किं कारणं ब्रह्म)? From what have been born (कुतः स्म जाता)? By what do we live (जीवाम केन)? And where do we exist, rest, at the time of dissolution (क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा)? O Knowers of Brahman, regulated by whom (अधिष्ठिताः केन) do we conform to the system regarding happiness and its opposite namely sorrows (सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे)?

In this way the question "What is the cause" (किं कारणं । kiṁ kāraṇaṁ) pertains to the primordial cause of the regulation of creation, continuance and dissolution.

Mundakopanishad also raises the question of Knowledge and seeks answers to understand the nature of vidya

कस्मिन्नु भगवो विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवतीति ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)

kasminnu bhagavo vijñāte sarvamidaṁ vijñātaṁ bhavatīti ॥ 3 ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)

Meaning : What is that by knowing which everything in this universe is known?

Answers

The answer to the above natural quests are found in the conception of a Supreme Being or Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe, from whom, indeed, beings are born, through whom they live and unto whom they return and merge in. The knower of Brahman attains the highest.

ब्रह्मलक्षणम् ॥ Defining Brahman

The characteristics of Brahma comprehensively put forth in Taittriya Upanishad in the Brahmanandavalli defines Brahman thus

सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । satyaṁ jñānamanantaṁ brahma । Brahman is Truth, Knowledge, Infinite (Tait. Upan. 3.1)

He is again defined simply as having सच्चिदानन्दलक्षणम् as defined in Nrsimha Uttaratapaniya Upanishad and reiterated in Panchadashi composed by Vidyaranyaswami.

सच्चिदानन्दमात्रः स स्वराड् भवति । saccidānandamātraḥ sa svarāḍ bhavati । He is effulgent with (the qualities of) Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss (Nrsim. Uttar. Upan.7)

सच्चित्सुखात्मकं ब्रह्म ...। saccitsukhātmakaṁ brahma ...। The nature of Brahman is existence, consciousness, and bliss (Panchadasi 13.62)

ब्रह्मतत्वम् ॥ Nature of Brahman

Discussion on Brahmatattva or nature of Brahman is extensive and ageless with numerous Upanishad and Vedanta bhashyas on the subject explaining different characteristics. Putting together the Upanishadic and Brahmasutra explanations, Brahman is said to have the following features

• All-perceiving (सर्वानुभूः)
• Immortal (तदमृतँ)
• Eternal (नित्यम्)
• Formless (अरूपम्)
• Undiminishing (अव्ययम्)
• Hidden in every being (भूतेषु गूढः)
• Constant (ध्रुवं)
• Birthless (अजः)
• Lacks vital force (अप्राणः)
• Without mind (अमनाः)
• Unattached (असङ्गम्)
• Without beginning or end (अनाद्यनन्तं)
• Unfathomable (अग्राह्यम्)
• Cannot be inferred (अलक्षणं)
• Unthinkable (अचिन्त्यम्)
• Indescribable by words (अव्यपदेश्यम्)
• Distinct from Buddhi (महतः परं)
• Pure Intelligence (प्रज्ञानघन)
• Pure Consciousness (चैतन्यमात्रम्)

Kaivalyopanishad summarizes the nature of Brahman as follows

मय्येव सकलं जातं मयि सर्वं प्रतिष्ठितम् । मयि सर्वं लयं याति तद्ब्रह्माद्वयमस्म्यहम् ॥ १९ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 19)

In me alone is everything born, in me does everything rest and in me is everything dissolved. I am that Brahman, advayam or secondless.

न पुण्यपापे मम नास्ति नाशो न जन्म देहेन्द्रियबुद्धिरस्ति । न भूमिरापो न च वह्निरस्ति न चानिलो मेऽस्ति न चाम्बरं च ॥ २३ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 23)

एवं विदित्वा परमात्मरूपं गुहाशयं निष्कलमद्वितीयम् । समस्तसाक्षिं सदसद्विहीनं प्रयाति शुद्धं परमात्मरूपम् ॥ २४ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 24)

For Me there is neither earth, nor water, nor fire, nor air, nor ether. Thus realising the Paramatman, who lies in the cavity of the heart, who is without parts, and without a second, the Witness of all, beyond both existence and non-existence - one attains the Pure Paramatman Itself.

States of Brahman

Brhdaranyanka Upanishad is one of the earliest texts mentioning the existence of the two states of Brahman

द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे । मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च, मर्त्यं चामृतं च । स्थितं च यच्च । सच्च त्यं च ॥ बृह. २,३.१ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.1)

Indeed, there are two forms of Brahman, gross (मूर्तं) and subtle (अमूर्तं) (with form and formless), mortal and immortal (changing and unchanging), finite and infinite, defined and undefined (existent and beyond (existence)).

Brahman or the Supreme Self has but two forms, through the superimposition of which, by ignorance, the formless Supreme Brahman is defined or made conceivable. Which are those two forms? The gross and subtle. The other phases of the gross and subtle are included in them; so they are counted as two only. Here, the gross or Defined (Saguna), having particular characteristics that distinguish it from others and Undefined, the opposite of that, which can only be distantly referred to, as something unknown. The subtle is immortal not subject to destruction. This 'being' is the perfection of the two subtle elements (air and ether), because they emanate from the undifferentiated in order to form the subtle body of Hiranyagarbha (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.2-3).

The Brahman that is (respectively) connected with the body and organs, which are the product of the five elements, is designated as gross and subtle, is mortal and immortal and includes the impressions created by those elements, is the omniscient, omnipotent, conditioned Brahman Saguna). It consists of actions, their factors and their results, and admitting of all kinds of association. That same Brahman, again, is devoid of all limiting adjuncts, the object of intuition, birthless, undecaying, immortal, fearless, and beyond the reach of even speech and mind, being above duality, and is described as 'Not this, not this.'

We now proceed to discuss the conditioned and unconditioned Brahman in further sections in light of the different schools of thought of vedanta.

Brahman as in Different Sampradayas

Everyone of the vedantic system-builders - Sri Shankara, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and others-has followed his own standpoint in his commentary of the Upanishads, bringing a mind illumined, directed by his own individual spiritual experience and interpreted all the passages to uphold his position and popularize the system of thought he expounded.

While fundamentally in agreement regarding Brahman various Vedantic schools differ in the following aspects

Key Differences of Brahman in Three Vedanta Sampradayas

Concept	Advaita	Dvaita	Vishistadvaita
Concept of Brahman	Nirguna (Impersonal)	Saguna (Personal)	Saguna (Personal)
Who is Brahman	Attributeless without Name and Form	Vishnu is Supreme Deity	Brahman or Narayana (Purushottama)
Real and Unreal	Brahman is Real, Samsara is Unreal	World is Real with five-fold difference	Both Brahman and Samsara are Real
Efficient cause of the Universe (effect)	Cause and effect are one and the same Brahman	Vishnu is the efficient cause of the Universe	Vishnu is the efficient cause of the Universe
Relationship of Jivatma and Brahman	Absolute Identity (Kevaladvaita)	Absolute Distinction (Kevala Bheda)	Two Separate entities where one controls the other but are in Unity (Visishitadvaita)
Origin of the Universe	From Brahman through Maya	Vishnu is the manifestor of the Universe	Vishnu is the Creator
Realization Method	Atma transcending Avidya	Knowledge of Vishnu and Universe	Bhakti leads to Brahman
Moksha Method	Jnana that Jivatma and Paramatma are One	Attainment of Vishnu through Vishnuprasada (grace)	Union with Vishnu

निर्गुणब्रह्मा ॥ Nirguna Brahma

Advaita Vedantins totally dismiss the concept that Brahman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained by Sri Adi Shankaracharya and Advaita Bhashyas. Postulates of Advaita include

• Brahman is Nirguna, without attributes, and is Real; all else is unreal;
• Jivatma and Paramatma are the same without any difference.
• The idea of difference between them arises from Avidya (nescience, ignorance, lack of yadartha jnana) and when Atma transcends Avidya, it brings about the realization of the All-ness and wholeness of the Atman as indicated by the vidya-sutra

  आत्मेत्येवोपासीतात्र ह्येते सर्व एकं भवन्ति । ātmetyevopāsītātra hyete sarva ekaṁ bhavanti । (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.7)

• The Universe springs from Brahman, just like hairs on a man's head; it is the work of Maya.

Cause and effect are one and the same (कार्यकारण-अभेदः) just like an aggregation of threads is seen in the form of a cloth. As long as the Atma identifies itself with the Upadhis (vehicle of atma), it remains bound in Samsara, when it Knows Itself as Self, it becomes free from Samsara. For those who are not yet ready for this effort of Self Knowledge, ritual is not only desirable but also necessary. Those who reached the point where Atma only attracts them, Jnanam is enough and by Sadhana they achieve Brahman, the goal. However, a Jnani does not abstain from Karma or actions (similar as in Samkhya siddhanta), he best understands them and actively engages in them, being unattached to the results and not by the dictate of desire. Such a person is called Jivanmukta.

For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the conversation between Uddalaka and Shvetaketu. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cycle of birth and death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)

Unity of Jivatma and Brahman

According to the Advaita Sampradaya the impersonal Brahman is essentially identical with the Atman. Many primary expressions of human nature such as, fear, sorrow, delusion etc are explained as ignorance of the being.

Brhdaranyaka Upanishad

One of the earliest references to the unity of the Atman and Brahman and the way to such realization is found mentioned in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. In the context of explaining about fear, the Upanishad says

कस्माद्ध्यभेष्यत् । द्वितीयाद्वै भयं भवति ॥ बृह. १,४.२ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.2)

Meaning: For what was there to fear? It is from a second entity that fear comes.

Nothing short of realization of identity can banish all grief and misery, 'a second entity indeed causes fear'. The means of removing this false notion that caused the fear, was, the right knowledge of the Self. The second entity is merely projected by ignorance, when it is not perceived at all, it cannot cause fear. Thus the notion of a second entity was removed by the knowledge of Unity; it was non-existent.

Brhdaranyaka Upanishad also lays emphasis of the Unity of Jiva and Brahman (2.4.6-9). In the Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi Samvada the very nature of Atman is defined. All the brahmanas, kshatriyas, the whole world, the countless devatas and all beings are the form of Atman only.

Isavasyopanishad

Isopanishad or Isavasyopanishad ascertains that when the second entity is not perceived at all, one becomes free of all grief

यस्मिन्सर्वाणि भूतान्यात्मैवाभूद्विजानतः । तत्र को मोहः कः शोक एकत्वमनुपश्यतः ॥ ७ ॥ (Isav. Upan. 7)

When to the man of realization all beings become the very Self, then what delusion and sorrow can be there for that seer of Oneness.

Mundakopanishad

Their apparent difference (Brahman and Atman), but essential unity is admirably presented in the following oft-quoted mantras from Mundakopanishad

द्वा सुपर्णा सयुजा सखाया समानं वृक्षं परिषस्वजाते । तयोरन्यः पिप्पलं स्वाद्वत्त्यनश्नन्नन्यो अभिचाकशीति ॥ १ ॥

समाने वृक्षे पुरुषो निमग्नोऽनीशया शोचति मुह्यमानः । जुष्टं यदा पश्यत्यन्यमीशमस्य महिमानमिति वीतशोकः ॥ २ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 3.1.1-2)

Summary : Two birds of beautiful plumage (Atman and Brahman) who are friends and always joined together, cling to the same tree (the body). One of them (the Atman) eats sweet (and bitter) fruits (experiences the results of its past work), but the other only looks on without eating. On the same tree (wholly identified with the body), the individual Atman (Purusha) remains drowned (stuck); is overwhelmed by his impotence and suffers. When is sees the other, the Infinite Being (Isham) and His glory, then it becomes liberated from sorrow.

Mandukya Upanishad

Mandukya Upanishad's Mahavakya reinforces the concept of unity of Atma and Paramatma.

सर्वं ह्येतद् ब्रह्मा अयमात्मा ब्रह्म सोऽयमात्मा चतुष्पात् ॥ २ ॥(Mand. Upan. 2)

All this is surely Brahman. The Self os Brahman. The Self, such as It is, is possessed of four quarters.

Kathopanishad

In Kathopanishad, the concept of Brahman is discussed when Nachiketa presses Yama to reveal to him the supreme secret, Yama says

यदेवेह तदमुत्र यदमुत्र तदन्विह । मृत्योः स मृत्युमाप्नोति य इह नानेव पश्यति ॥ १० ॥

yadeveha tadamutra yadamutra tadanviha । mr̥tyoḥ sa mr̥tyumāpnoti ya iha nāneva paśyati ॥ 10 ॥

मनसैवेदमाप्तव्यं नेह नानाऽस्ति किंचन । मृत्योः स मृत्युं गच्छति य इह नानेव पश्यति ॥ ११ ॥ (Kath. Upan. 2.1.10-11)

manasaivedamāptavyaṁ neha nānā'sti kiṁcana । mr̥tyoḥ sa mr̥tyuṁ gacchati ya iha nāneva paśyati ॥ 11 ॥ (Kath. Upan. 2.1.10-11)

Summary : The entity that exists in all beings from Brahma down to immovable and appears as non-Brahman owing to limiting factors (Jiva) is different from Supreme Brahman, is subject to birth and death. What indeed is here, is there and what is there is here. He who sees as though there is difference between the two, goes from death to death. This is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Self and Supreme Brahman.

Bhagavadgita

Further in the Bhagavadgita, Shri Krishna reminds us of the essential identity between Jivatma and the Supreme

ममैवांशो जीवलोके जीवभूतः सनातनः । मनःषष्ठानीन्द्रियाणि प्रकृतिस्थानि कर्षति ॥१५- ७॥ (Bhag. Gita. 15.7)

It is verily a part of Mine which, becoming the eternal Jivatma (individual Atman) in the world of life, draws (to itself) the sense organs with the Manas as their sixth, placed in Nature.

The Upanishads discuss the metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Saṇḍilya vidya in Chandogya Upanishad (Adhyaya 14). The Saṇḍilya vidya on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana (10.6.3). It asserts that Atman (Soul, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman is identical with Atman, that the Brahman is inside man – thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Bharat's philosophies.

सगुणब्रह्मा ॥ Saguna Brahma

The Dvaita Vedantins uphold the distinctness of Paramatma from Jivatma both in material world and in Moksha. It teaches that Vishnu is the Supreme Deity and formed the Universe out of Prkriti which is already existing. Here the concept of Supreme (Brahman) is seen in Vishnu, who is the efficient cause of the Universe. It follows the Samkhya darshana way of describing the evolution and that Jiva travels on a spiritual journey to attain the Paramatma. Jiva attains Moksha in which it remains in Bhoga (भोगः । enjoyment of eternal bliss) with the Paramatma. The Jiva reaches one or other of the four conditions

1. Sarupya (सारूप्यम् । Same form as the Divine Form)
2. Salokya (सालोक्यम् । Residence in the same loka as the Divine Form eg : Goloka)
3. Sannidhya (सान्निध्यम् । Being in proximity to the Divine Form)
4. Sayujyam (सायुज्यम् । Union with the Divine Form).

However, this union is not to be considered as one of identity of nature. (Page 33 of Reference).

The Vishistadvaita Vedantins uphold separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । ) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman. Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.

Schools of thought

Vedanta

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

Advaita Vedanta

Main article: Advaita Vedanta

Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality, there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. Brahman is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings. The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (Atman) gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("Avidya"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman. The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. Brahman is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists. This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "Ekam sat" ("Truth is one"), and all is Brahman.

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it is Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, the knowledge of Brahman that shruti provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.

In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality. Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.

Example verses from Bhagavad-Gita include:

<poem> The offering is Brahman; the oblation is Brahman; offered by Brahman into the fire of Brahman. Brahman will be attained by him, who always sees Brahman in action. – Hymn 4.24

He who finds his happiness within, His delight within, And his light within, This yogin attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman. – Hymn 5.24 </poem>

— Bhagavad Gita

Visishtadvaita Vedanta

The Brahman of Visishtadvaita is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with Narayana, the transcendent and immanent reality. Brahman or Narayana is Saguna Brahman, one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless Nirguna Brahman.

Dvaita Vedanta

Template:Vaishnavism Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between Tattvas (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:

1. Jîva-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the soul and Vishnu
2. Jada-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the insentient and Vishnu
3. Mitha-jîva-bheda — difference between any two souls
4. Jada-jîva-bheda — difference between insentient and the soul
5. Mitha-jada-bheda — difference between any two insentients

Achintya Bheda Abheda

The Acintya Bheda Abheda philosophy is similar to Dvaitadvaita (differential monism). In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal. That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called jnana) of Absolute Truth, He is realized as impersonal Brahman, then as personal Brahman having eternal Vaikuntha abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as Paramatma (by process of yoga-meditation on Supersoul, Vishnu-God in heart) – Vishnu (Narayana, also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Vishnulokas (Vaikunthalokas), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by bhakti) as Bhagavan, Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal, impersonal, or both).

Vaishnavism

Main article: Vaishnavism

All Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an intermediate step of self-realization, but not Mukti, or final liberation of complete God-realization through Bhakti Yoga.

Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Vishnu/Krishna; the universe and all other manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him.

Bhakti movement

Main article: Bhakti movement

The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman – Nirguna and Saguna. Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality. Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality. The two had parallels in the ancient panthestic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita. It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita. Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge. In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.

Jeaneane Fowler states that Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were Sandilya Bhakti Sutra – a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and Narada Bhakti Sutra – a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.

Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality". Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman. These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.

Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas

Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality, that, states Doniger, is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence. It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends. It is a gender neutral abstract concept. The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads; while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads. In the Puranic and the Epics literature, deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently. Some texts suggest that god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism), others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism), yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism), and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf. Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the sagunaTemplate:Refn Brahman is Vishnu, is Shiva, or is Devi respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.