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Line 53: − ==Wiki material== − Brahman (Samskrit : ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest Universal Principle, the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Ultimate Reality]] in the universe.<ref name="james122">James Lochtefeld, ''Brahman'', The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 122</ref><ref name="ptraju">PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref> − − Brahman is trans empirical, subject-objectless consciousness, which is not conditioned by space, time and causality - the empirical categories. True knowledge is intuition which is supra-intellectual integral experience. Apara Vidya or False knowledge or lower knowledge is discursive, intellectual and categorized.<ref>Course on Vedanta Philosophy at IIT Bombay</ref> − − In major schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] it is the material, efficient, formal and final [[Four causes|cause]] of all that exists.<ref name="ptraju" /><ref>Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, ISBN 978-9042015104, pages 43-44</ref><ref name="fxclooney">For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199738724, pages 51-58, 111-115; − − For monist school of Hinduism, see: B Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis - Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18-35 − </ref> It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.<ref name="james122" />{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53-55}}<ref name="jeffreybrodd">Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47</ref> Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.<ref name="james122" />{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=50-53}} − − Brahman is a [[Vedic Sanskrit]] word, and is conceptualized in Hinduism, states [[Paul Deussen]], as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 91</ref> Brahman is a key concept found in [[Vedas]], and extensively discussed in the early [[Upanishads]].<ref name="sphilips">Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415187077, pages 1-4</ref> The [[Veda]]s conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle.<ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121">Hananya Goodman (1994), Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791417164, page 121</ref> In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as ''[[Satcitananda|Sat-cit-ānanda]]'' (being-consciousness-bliss){{sfn|Raju|1992|p=228}}<ref>Eliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Vedanta : A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824802714, Chapter 1</ref> and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53-55}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|p=6-7}}{{refn|group=note|[[Advaita Vedanta#Criterion of Sublation|"not sublatable"]],{{sfn|Potter|2008|p=6-7}} the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").}}{{refn|group=note|It is also defined as: − * The unchanging, [[Infinity|infinite]], [[Immanence|immanent]], and [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[reality]] which is the Divine Ground of all [[matter]], [[energy]], [[time]], [[space]], [[being]], and everything beyond in this [[Universe]]; that is the one supreme, universal spirit.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jefferey | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref> − * The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] universe.<ref>John Bowker (ed.)(2012), ''The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', Oxford University Press.[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-1183]</ref>}} − − Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Soul, Self),<ref name="sphilips" />{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49-53}} [[Personal god|personal]],{{refn|group=note|[[Saguna Brahman]], with qualities}} [[Absolute (philosophy)|impersonal]]{{refn|group=note|[[Nirguna Brahman]], without qualities}} or [[Para Brahman]],{{refn|group=note|Supreme}} or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.<ref>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman - Self and All</ref> In [[Dualism|dualistic]] schools of Hinduism such as the theistic [[Dvaita Vedanta]], Brahman is different from Atman (soul) in each being, and therein it shares conceptual framework of [[God]] in major world religions.<ref name="fxclooney" /><ref name="mmyers">Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 124-127</ref><ref>Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110342550, pages 155-157</ref> In [[Nondualism|non-dual]] schools of Hinduism such as the [[Monism|monist]] [[Advaita Vedanta]], Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.<ref name="jeffreybrodd" /><ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref><ref>John E. Welshons (2009), One Soul, One Love, One Heart, New World Library, ISBN 978-1577315889, pages 17-18</ref> − ==Etymology and related terms== − [[Sanskrit]] ''Brahman'' (an ''n''-stem, nominative ''{{IAST|bráhmā}}'') from a [[Root (linguistics)|root]] ''{{IAST|bṛh}}-'' "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge" is a neutral noun to be distinguished from the masculine ''{{IAST|[[brahmán]]}}''—denoting a person associated with Brahman, and from [[Brahmā]], the creator God of the Hindu Trinity, the [[Trimurti]]. Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world",{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=222}} while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined".{{sfn|Sinari|2000|p=384}} − In [[Vedic Sanskrit]]: − *''Br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>n'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter">Not Masculine or Feminine (see [[Grammatical gender]]).</ref> [[gender]]) from root ''bṛh-'', means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".<ref name="jangondaetymo">[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Bharat's Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268-269</ref> − *''Br<u>a</u>hmān<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems ''brh<u>a</u>'' (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit ''-man-'' from Indo-European root ''-men-'' which denotes some manifested form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".<ref name="jangondaetymo" /> − In later Sanskrit usage: − *''Br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman'' (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter" /> [[gender]]) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below. ''Brahm'' is another variant of ''Brahman''. − *''Br<u>a</u>hmā'' (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singlular), ''Brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) ([[masculine]] [[gender]]), means the deity or [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]] [[Brahma (god)|Prajāpati Brahmā]]. He is one of the members of the [[Trimurti|Hindu trinity]] and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into [[Purusha]] at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new [[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]. − These are distinct from: − *A ''brāhm<u>a</u>ṇ<u>a</u>'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced {{IPA-sa|ˈbraːhməɳə|}}), (which literally means "pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the [[Veda|Vedic mantras]]—an integral part of the Vedic literature. − *A ''brāhm<u>a</u>ṇ<u>a</u>'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "[[Brahmin]]". This usage is also found in the [[Atharva Veda]]. In neuter plural form, Brahmāṇi. See [[Vedic priest]]. − *''[[Ishvara]]'', (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In [[Visishtadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]], however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal Brahman. − *''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]s'', the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme Brahman (See [[Para Brahman]]). The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations. − ==History and literature== − ===Vedic=== − ''Brahman'' is a concept present in Vedic [[Samhita]]s, the oldest layer of the [[Vedas]] dated to the 2nd millennium BCE. For example,{{Quote| − <poem> − The ''Ṛcs'' are limited (''parimita''), − The ''Samans'' are limited, − And the ''Yajuses'' are limited, − But of the Word ''Brahman'', there is no end. − </poem> − |Taittiriya Samhita VII.3.1.4|Translated by Barbara Holdrege<ref name=barbarah29>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, page 29</ref>}}The concept ''Brahman'' is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedas.<ref name="mauricebrahman">[[Maurice Bloomfield]], [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/656/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance], Harvard University Press, pages 656-662</ref> For example, it is found in [[Rig veda]] hymns such as 2.2.10,<ref>Original: वयमग्ने अर्वता वा सुवीर्यं '''ब्रह्मणा''' वा चितयेमा जनाँ अति । अस्माकं द्युम्नमधि पञ्च कृष्टिषूच्चा स्वर्ण शुशुचीत दुष्टरम् ॥१०॥ − − Source: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_२.२ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं २.२] Wikisource − </ref> 6.21.8,<ref>Original: स तु श्रुधीन्द्र नूतनस्य '''ब्रह्मण्य'''तो वीर कारुधायः । त्वं ह्यापिः प्रदिवि पितॄणां शश्वद्बभूथ सुहव एष्टौ ॥८॥ − − [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_६.२१ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ६.२१] Wikisource − </ref> 10.72.2<ref>Original: '''ब्रह्मण'''स्पतिरेता सं कर्मार इवाधमत् । देवानां पूर्व्ये युगेऽसतः सदजायत ॥२॥ − − [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.७२ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.७२] Wikisource − </ref> and in [[Atharvaveda|Atharva veda]] hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131.<ref name="mauricebrahman" /> The concept is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example:<ref name="mauricebrahman" /> Aitareya [[Brahmana]] 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 13.5.2.5, Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.8.10, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya [[Aranyaka]] 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in the Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the [[Vedas#Vedanga|vedāṅga]] (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5.<ref name="mauricebrahman" /> − − [[Jan Gonda]] states that the diverse reference of ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning".<ref name="jangondameaning">[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Bharat's Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 269-271</ref> There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda.<ref name="jangondameaning" /> In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of ''Brahman'' is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Bharat's Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 271-272</ref> − − Barbara Holdrege states that the concept ''Brahman'' is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (''Sabdabrahman''),<ref>See Rigveda Chapter 1.164; − − Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Encyclopedia of Bharat's Philosophies: Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120804265, pages 34-35 − </ref> as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions.<ref>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, page 24</ref> Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists.<ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121" /> [[Gavin Flood]] states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of ''Brahman'' evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], soul)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference".<ref name="gavinflood84">Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 84-85</ref> − + − + − {| class="wikitable sortable" |- − !Text!!Upanishad!!Translation!!Reference − |- − |'''अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि'''''aham brahmāsmi''||[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 1.4.10||"I am Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n171/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 1.4.10, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad - Shankara Bhashya, page 145</ref> − |- − |'''अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म'''''ayam ātmā brahma''||Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5||"The Self is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n737/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad - Shankara Bhashya, pages 711-712</ref> − |- − |'''सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म'''''sarvam khalvidam brahma''||[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 3.14.1||"All this is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_२ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.१ ॥तृतीयॊऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource − − English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1] Oxford University Press, page 48; − − Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii-xix</ref> − |- − |'''एकमेवाद्वितीयम्'''''ekam evadvitiyam''||Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1||"That [Brahman] is one, without a second"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource − − English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, page 93; − − Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii-xix</ref> − |- − |'''तत्त्वमसि'''''[[tat tvam asi]]''||Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq.||"Thou art that" ("You are Brahman")||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource − English Translation:Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n267/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 6.8, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 246-250+ − </ref><ref>AS Gupta, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397392 The Meanings of "That Thou Art"], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 12, No. 2, pages 125-134</ref> − |- − |'''प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म'''''prajnānam brahma''||[[Aitareya Upanishad]] 3.3.7||"Knowledge is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऐतरेयोपनिषद् ऐतरेयोपनिषद्] Wikisource − − English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/246/mode/2up Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7] Oxford University Press, page 246 − </ref> − |}The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts. The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (Soul, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman is identical with Atman, that the Brahman is inside man – thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Bharat's philosophies.<ref name="gjha314">[https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya] Ganganath Jha (Translator), pages 150-157</ref><ref>For modern era cites: Line 182:
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{{ToBeEdited}}
{{ToBeEdited}}Brahman (Samskrit : ब्रह्मन्) signifies the highest universal in the universe.
==Etymology and related terms==
[[Sanskrit]] ''Brahman'' (an ''n''-stem, nominative ''{{IAST|bráhmā}}'') from a [[Root (linguistics)|root]] ''{{IAST|bṛh}}-'' "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge" is a neutral noun to be distinguished from the masculine ''{{IAST|[[brahmán]]}}''—denoting a person associated with Brahman, and from [[Brahmā]], the creator God of the Hindu Trinity, the [[Trimurti]]. Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world",{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=222}} while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined".{{sfn|Sinari|2000|p=384}}
In [[Vedic Sanskrit]]:
*''Br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>n'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter">Not Masculine or Feminine (see [[Grammatical gender]]).</ref> [[gender]]) from root ''bṛh-'', means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".<ref name="jangondaetymo">[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Bharat's Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268-269</ref>
*''Br<u>a</u>hmān<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems ''brh<u>a</u>'' (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit ''-man-'' from Indo-European root ''-men-'' which denotes some manifested form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".<ref name="jangondaetymo" />
In later Sanskrit usage:
*''Br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman'' (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter" /> [[gender]]) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below. ''Brahm'' is another variant of ''Brahman''.
*''Br<u>a</u>hmā'' (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singlular), ''Brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) ([[masculine]] [[gender]]), means the deity or [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]] [[Brahma (god)|Prajāpati Brahmā]]. He is one of the members of the [[Trimurti|Hindu trinity]] and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into [[Purusha]] at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new [[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]].
These are distinct from:
*A ''brāhm<u>a</u>ṇ<u>a</u>'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced {{IPA-sa|ˈbraːhməɳə|}}), (which literally means "pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the [[Veda|Vedic mantras]]—an integral part of the Vedic literature.
*A ''brāhm<u>a</u>ṇ<u>a</u>'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "[[Brahmin]]". This usage is also found in the [[Atharva Veda]]. In neuter plural form, Brahmāṇi. See [[Vedic priest]].
*''[[Ishvara]]'', (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In [[Visishtadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]], however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal Brahman.
*''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]s'', the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme Brahman (See [[Para Brahman]]). The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations.
== Evolution of Concept of Brahman ==
===एकं सत् ॥ The One Existence===
===एकं सत् ॥ The One Existence===
Worship of the nature and devatas such as the ''Agni'', ''Aditya'', ''Indra'', ''Rudra'', ''Visnu'', ''Brahma'' and others becomes internalized in the Upanishads to the meditation on the supreme, immortal and formless Brahman-Atman. The many names of devatas with forms and weapons gradually merged into defining a One Existence, a supreme being called now as Paramatma, Brahman etc.<blockquote>एकं सद्विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति (Rig. Veda. 1.164.46)</blockquote>Devatas who held positions in the outer worlds are now declared to be everywhere, even as the innermost being of each human being and within every other living creature.<blockquote>एकमेवाद्वितीयम्। (Chand. Upan. 6.2.1)<ref>Chandogya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Adhyaya 6])</ref></blockquote>What was One reality or ''ekam'' sat of the Vedas now transformed to the ekam eva advitiyam brahma'' or "the one and'' ''only one, sans a second''" in the Upanishads. Discussion of Brahman-Atman and Self-realization develops in the Upanishads as the means to moksha (liberation, freedom in this life or after-life). Worship which was primarily of the nature and natural elements (like fire, clouds and rains, air) was followed by deities having a form and qualities called Saguna Brahman which gradually led to worship of "Tat" (That) a nameless, formless Supreme Entity without attributes and qualities called as Nirguna Brahman.
Worship of the nature and devatas such as the ''Agni'', ''Aditya'', ''Indra'', ''Rudra'', ''Visnu'', ''Brahma'' and others becomes internalized in the Upanishads to the meditation on the supreme, immortal and formless Brahman-Atman. The many names of devatas with forms and weapons gradually merged into defining a One Existence, a supreme being called now as Paramatma, Brahman etc.<blockquote>एकं सद्विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति (Rig. Veda. 1.164.46)</blockquote>Devatas who held positions in the outer worlds are now declared to be everywhere, even as the innermost being of each human being and within every other living creature.<blockquote>एकमेवाद्वितीयम्। (Chand. Upan. 6.2.1)<ref>Chandogya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Adhyaya 6])</ref></blockquote>What was One reality or ''ekam'' sat of the Vedas now transformed to the ekam eva advitiyam brahma'' or "the one and'' ''only one, sans a second''" in the Upanishads. Discussion of Brahman-Atman and Self-realization develops in the Upanishads as the means to moksha (liberation, freedom in this life or after-life). Worship which was primarily of the nature and natural elements (like fire, clouds and rains, air) was followed by deities having a form and qualities called Saguna Brahman which gradually led to worship of "Tat" (That) a nameless, formless Supreme Entity without attributes and qualities called as Nirguna Brahman.
===Nirguna Brahma Swaroopa===
===Nirguna Brahma Swarupa===
Brahman is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman is "the infinite source, fabric, core and destiny of all existence, both manifested and unmanifested, the formless infinite substratum and from which the universe has grown". Kathopanishad states 1.2.15 and 16 that<blockquote>सर्वे वेदा यत्पदमामनन्ति तपाँसि सर्वाणि च यद्वदन्ति । यदिच्छन्तो ब्रह्मचर्यं चरन्ति तत्ते पदँ संग्रहेण ब्रवीम्योमित्येतत् ॥ १५ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं ब्रह्म एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं परम् । एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं ज्ञात्वा यो यदिच्छति तस्य तत् ॥ १६ ॥ (Kath. Upan. 1.2.15)<ref>Kathopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80 Adhyaya 1 Valli 2])</ref></blockquote>That which all the Vedas declare, that which all austerities utter, That desiring which they lead the life of Brahmacharya, That Word I tell thee briefly : it is Aum. That word is even Brahman; that Word is even the Supreme. <ref name=":022">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref>
Brahman is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman is "the infinite source, fabric, core and destiny of all existence, both manifested and unmanifested, the formless infinite substratum and from which the universe has grown". Kathopanishad states 1.2.15 and 16 that<blockquote>सर्वे वेदा यत्पदमामनन्ति तपाँसि सर्वाणि च यद्वदन्ति । यदिच्छन्तो ब्रह्मचर्यं चरन्ति तत्ते पदँ संग्रहेण ब्रवीम्योमित्येतत् ॥ १५ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं ब्रह्म एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं परम् । एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं ज्ञात्वा यो यदिच्छति तस्य तत् ॥ १६ ॥ (Kath. Upan. 1.2.15)<ref>Kathopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80 Adhyaya 1 Valli 2])</ref></blockquote>That which all the Vedas declare, that which all austerities utter, That desiring which they lead the life of Brahmacharya, That Word I tell thee briefly : it is Aum. That word is even Brahman; that Word is even the Supreme. <ref name=":022">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref>
===प्रणवम् ॥ Pranava===
===प्रणवम् ॥ Pranava===
'''The Vishistadvaita Vedantins''' uphold separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । ) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman. Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.<ref name=":0222" />
'''The Vishistadvaita Vedantins''' uphold separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । ) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman. Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.<ref name=":0222" />
===Upanishads===
===Upanishads===
The primary focus on the early Upanishads is ''Brahmavidya'' and ''Atmavidya'', that is the knowledge of Brahman and the knowledge of Atman (self, soul), what it is and how it is understood.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Bharat's Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, page 56</ref> The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name="sphilips" />
The primary focus on the early Upanishads is ''Brahmavidya'' and ''Atmavidya'', that is the knowledge of Brahman and the knowledge of Atman (self, soul), what it is and how it is understood.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Bharat's Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, page 56</ref> The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name="sphilips">Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415187077, pages 1-4</ref>
[[Paul Deussen]] states that the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads expands to metaphysical, ontological and soteriological themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the universe",<ref name="pauldeussen243">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 243, 325-344, 363, 581</ref> the "principle of the world",<ref name="pauldeussen243" /> the "absolute",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 358, 371</ref> the "general, universal",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 305, 476</ref> the "cosmic principle",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 110, 315-316, 495, 838-851</ref> the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 211, 741-742</ref> the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 308-311, 497-499</ref> the "knowledge",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 181, 237, 444, 506-544, 570-571, 707, 847-850</ref> the "soul, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful",<ref name="pauldeussen52">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585-586, 838-851</ref> the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 173-174, 188-198, 308-317, 322-324, 367, 447, 496, 629-637, 658, 707-708</ref> the "universe within each living being and the universe outside",<ref name="pauldeussen52" /> the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 600, 619-620, 647, 777</ref>
[[Paul Deussen]] states that the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads expands to metaphysical, ontological and soteriological themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the universe",<ref name="pauldeussen243">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 243, 325-344, 363, 581</ref> the "principle of the world",<ref name="pauldeussen243" /> the "absolute",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 358, 371</ref> the "general, universal",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 305, 476</ref> the "cosmic principle",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 110, 315-316, 495, 838-851</ref> the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 211, 741-742</ref> the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 308-311, 497-499</ref> the "knowledge",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 181, 237, 444, 506-544, 570-571, 707, 847-850</ref> the "soul, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful",<ref name="pauldeussen52">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585-586, 838-851</ref> the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 173-174, 188-198, 308-317, 322-324, 367, 447, 496, 629-637, 658, 707-708</ref> the "universe within each living being and the universe outside",<ref name="pauldeussen52" /> the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 600, 619-620, 647, 777</ref>
Gavin Flood summarizes the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads to be the "essence, the smallest particle of the cosmos and the infinite universe", the "essence of all things which cannot be seen, though it can be experienced", the "self, soul within each person, each being", the "truth", the "reality", the "absolute", the "bliss" (''ananda'').<ref name="gavinflood84" />
Gavin Flood summarizes the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads to be the "essence, the smallest particle of the cosmos and the infinite universe", the "essence of all things which cannot be seen, though it can be experienced", the "self, soul within each person, each being", the "truth", the "reality", the "absolute", the "bliss" (''ananda'').<ref name="gavinflood84">Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 84-85</ref>
According to [[Radhakrishnan]], the sages of the [[Upanishads]] teach Brahman as the ultimate essence of material phenomena that cannot be seen or heard, but whose nature can be known through the development of self-knowledge (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|atma jnana]]'').<ref>pp.77, Radhakrishnan, S, ''The Principal Upanisads,'' HarperCollins India, 1994</ref>
According to [[Radhakrishnan]], the sages of the [[Upanishads]] teach Brahman as the ultimate essence of material phenomena that cannot be seen or heard, but whose nature can be known through the development of self-knowledge (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|atma jnana]]'').<ref>pp.77, Radhakrishnan, S, ''The Principal Upanisads,'' HarperCollins India, 1994</ref>
The Upanishads contain several ''mahā-vākyas'' or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:<ref name="EoH 270">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0816073368|pages=270}}</ref>
The Upanishads contain several ''mahā-vākyas'' or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:<ref name="EoH 270">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0816073368|pages=270}}</ref>
The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts. The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (Soul, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman is identical with Atman, that the Brahman is inside man – thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Bharat's philosophies.<ref name="gjha314">[https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya] Ganganath Jha (Translator), pages 150-157</ref><ref>For modern era cites:
*Anthony Warder (2009), A Course in Bharat's Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812444, pages 25-28;
*Anthony Warder (2009), A Course in Bharat's Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812444, pages 25-28;
*DD Meyer (2012), Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1443834919, page 250;
*DD Meyer (2012), Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1443834919, page 250;
{{Main|Moksha}}The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of [[moksha]]. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss),<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press, pages 124-125</ref> because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.<ref>Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Bharat's Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp 210-215</ref>
{{Main|Moksha}}The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of [[moksha]]. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss),<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press, pages 124-125</ref> because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.<ref>Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Bharat's Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp 210-215</ref>
The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual souls and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions.<ref name="mmyers" /> The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's soul with the distinct and separate Brahman ([[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every soul journeys towards in its own way for moksha.<ref>Betty, Stafford (2010) "Dvaita, Advaita, And Viśiṣṭadvaita: Contrasting Views Of Mokṣa", Asian Philosophy, pages 215-224</ref>
The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual souls and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions.<ref name="mmyers">Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 124-127</ref> The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's soul with the distinct and separate Brahman ([[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every soul journeys towards in its own way for moksha.<ref>Betty, Stafford (2010) "Dvaita, Advaita, And Viśiṣṭadvaita: Contrasting Views Of Mokṣa", Asian Philosophy, pages 215-224</ref>
==Schools of thought==
==Schools of thought==
===Vedanta===
===Vedanta===
The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism.
The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism.
====Advaita Vedanta====
====Advaita Vedanta====
{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}[[Advaita Vedanta]] espouses [[nondualism]]. ''Brahman'' is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas" /> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name="jeffreybrodd" /><ref name="barbarasca" /><ref name="rdalal">Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40" /> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org" /> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.
{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}[[Advaita Vedanta]] espouses [[nondualism]]. ''Brahman'' is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas" /> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name="jeffreybrodd">Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47</ref><ref name="barbarasca" /><ref name="rdalal">Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org" /> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.
The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>
The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>
The [[Brahmana]]s are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the [[Vedas]]. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref><ref>[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, pages 67-69</ref> They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the [[Hindu texts|Hindu]] ''[[śruti]]'' literature.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brahmana "Brahmana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''</ref>
The [[Brahmana]]s are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the [[Vedas]]. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref><ref>[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, pages 67-69</ref> They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the [[Hindu texts|Hindu]] ''[[śruti]]'' literature.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brahmana "Brahmana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''</ref>
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