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Line 1: − {{Distinguish2|[[Brahma]] – the Hindu god, or [[Brahmin]] – the caste or varna, or [[Brahmana]] – a layer of text in the Vedas}} − {{Other uses}} − {{Hinduism small}} − [[File:Wassertropfen.jpg|right|thumb|Impact of a drop of water in water, a common analogy for Brahman and the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]]] Line 53:
Line 49: − [[File:Mozzercork - Heart (by).jpg|thumb|Swan (Hansa, हंस) is the symbol for Brahman-Atman in Hindu iconography.<ref>Lindsay Jones (2005), Encyclopedia of religion, Volume 13, Macmillan Reference, ISBN 978-0028657332, page 8894, Quote: "In Hindu iconography the swan personifies Brahman-Atman, the transcendent yet immanent ground of being, the Self."</ref><ref>Denise Cush (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415556231, page 697</ref>]] Line 138:
Line 133: − {{Advaita}} Line 191:
Line 185: − ==Buddhist understanding of Brahman==+ − − Buddhism rejects the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman and Atman (soul, permanent self, essence).{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Zen Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2005), p. 30: "''Upanisadic'' thought is anything but consistent; nevertheless, there is a common focus on the acceptance of a totally transcendent Absolute, a trend which arose in the ''Vedic'' period. This indescribable Absolute is called Brahman [...] The true Self and Brahman are one and the same. Known as the Brahman-Atman synthesis, this theory, which is central to ''Upanisadic'' thought, is the cornerstone of Indian philosophy. The Brahman-Atman synthesis, which posits the theory of a permanent, unchanging self, was anathema to Buddhists, and it was as a reaction to the synthesis that Buddhism first drew breath. Merv Fowler p. 47: "For the ''Upanisadic'' sages, the real is the Self, is Atman, is Brahman. [...] To the Buddhist, however, any talk of an ''Atman'' or permanent, unchanging Self, the very kernel of ''Upanisadic'' thought, is anathema, a false notion of manifest proportion."}} According to Damien Keown, "the Buddha said he could find no evidence for the existence of either the personal soul (''atman'') or its cosmic counterpart (''brahman'')".<ref>Damien Keown, ''Buddhism'' (NY: Sterling, 2009), p. 70</ref> The metaphysics of Buddhism rejects Brahman (ultimate being), Brahman-like essence, soul and anything metaphysically equivalent through its [[Anatta]] doctrine.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Webster|title=The Philosophy of Desire in the Buddhist Pali Canon|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KqxI7YRUSegC|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-01057-0|pages=194–195, 93, 147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Richard Francis Gombrich|author2=Cristina Anna Scherrer-Schaub|title=Buddhist Studies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U7_Rea05eAMC |year=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3248-0|pages=192–193}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer|author2=Wade Clark Roof|title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |pages=272–273}}</ref> − − According to Merv Fowler, some forms of Buddhism have incorporated concepts that resemble that of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34: "It was inevitable that the non-theistic philosophy of orthodox Buddhism should court the older Hindu practices and, in particular, infuse into its philosophy the belief in a totally transcendent Absolute of the nature of Brahman."}} As an example, Fowler cites the early [[Sarvastivada]] school of Buddhism, which "had come to accept a very pantheistic religious philosophy, and are important because of the impetus they gave to the development of Mahayana Buddhism".<ref>Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34</ref> According to William Theodore De Bary, in the doctrines of the [[Yogacara]] school of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], "the Body of Essence, the Ultimate Buddha, who pervaded and underlay the whole universe [...] was in fact the World Soul, the Brahman of the Upanishads, in a new form".<ref>William Theodore De Bary, cited in Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 98</ref> According to Fowler, some scholars have identified the Buddhist ''[[nirvana]]'', conceived of as the Ultimate Reality, with the Hindu Brahman/atman; Fowler claims that this view "has gained little support in Buddhist circles."<ref>Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 81</ref> Fowler asserts that the authors of a number of Mahayana texts took pains to differentiate their ideas from the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 82: "The original writers of these Mahayana texts were not at all pleased that their writings were seen to contain the Brahman of the ''Upanisads'' in a new form. The authors of the ''Lankavatara'' strenuously denied that the womb of Tathagatahood, [...] was in any way equatable with the 'eternal self', the Brahmanical ''atman'' of ''Upanisadic'' thought. Similarly, the claim in the ''Nirvana Sutra'' that the Buddha regarded Buddhahood as a 'great atman' caused the Yogacarins considerable distress."}} − − ===Brahma as a surrogate for Brahman in Buddhist texts=== − The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older in the Vedic literature, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and icon with form and attributes (saguna version) of the impersonal, nirguna (without attributes), formless universal principle called Brahman.<ref name=brucesullivan>Bruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816763, pages 82-83</ref> In the Hindu texts, one of the earliest mention of deity Brahma along with [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]] is in the fifth ''Prapathaka'' (lesson) of the [[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]], probably composed in late 1st millennium BCE, after the rise of Buddhism.<ref name=hume51>{{citation|first=Robert Ernest|last=Hume|title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n443/mode/2up|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|pages=422–424}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=KN Jayatilleke|title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zcs41sp8ON4C |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0619-1 |pages=68, 374}}, Quote: "We may conclude from the above that the rise of Buddhism is not far removed in time from, though it is prior to, the Maitri Upanishad".</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215-219</ref> − − The early Buddhists attacked the concept of Brahma, states Gananath Obeyesekere, and thereby [[polemic]]ally attacked the Vedic and Upanishadic concept of gender neutral, abstract metaphysical Brahman.<ref name="Obeyesekere2006p179"/> This critique of Brahma in early Buddhist texts aim at ridiculing the [[Vedas]], but the same texts simultaneously call ''metta'' (loving-kindness, compassion) as the state of union with Brahma. The early Buddhist approach to Brahma was to reject any creator aspect, while retaining the value system in the Vedic [[Brahmavihara]] concepts, in the Buddhist value system.<ref name="Obeyesekere2006p179">{{cite book|author=Gananath Obeyesekere|title=Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IEK4Qgm7Z0kC |year=2006|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2609-0 |pages=177–179 }}</ref> According to Martin Wiltshire, the term "Brahma loka" in the Buddhist canon, instead of "Svarga loka", is likely a Buddhist attempt to choose and emphasize the "truth power" and knowledge focus of the Brahman concept in the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin G. Wiltshire|title=Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WXmmkYQf4RwC |year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-009896-9 |pages=248–249, 253–255}}</ref> Simultaneously, by reformulating Brahman as Brahma and relegating it within its Devas and [[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|Samsara]] theories, early Buddhism rejected the Atman-Brahman premise of the Vedas to present of its own ''Dhamma'' doctrines ([[anicca]], [[dukkha]] and [[anatta]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin G. Wiltshire|title=Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WXmmkYQf4RwC |year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-009896-9 |pages= 256–265}}</ref> − − ==Brahman in Sikhism== − {{multiple image − | direction = horizontal − | width1 = 130 − | width2 = 90 − | footer = [[Ik Onkar]] (left) is part of the [[Mul Mantar]] in Sikhism, where it means "Onkar [God, Reality] is one".<ref name=eleanor>Eleanor Nesbitt (2005), Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192806017, Chapter 4</ref> The Onkar of Sikhism is related to Om – also called ''Omkāra''<ref>Jean Holm and John Bowker, Worship, Bloomsbury, ISBN , page 67</ref> – in Hinduism.<ref name=eleanor/><ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 500</ref> The ancient texts of Hinduism state Om to be a symbolism for the Highest Reality, Brahman.<ref>Rangaswami Sudhakshina (2012), Roots of Vendanta, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143064459, page 405</ref><ref>David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195156690, page 54</ref> − | image1 = Ek_onkar.png − | image2 = Om devanagari.PNG − }} − The metaphysical concept of Brahman, particularly as ''nirguni Brahman'' – attributeless, formless, eternal Highest Reality – is at the foundation of [[Sikhism]].<ref name=sskohli39>SS Kohli (1993), The Sikh and Sikhism, Atlantic, ISBN 81-71563368, page 39</ref> This belief is observed through ''nirguni Bhakti'' by the Sikhs.<ref>Hardip Syan (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199699308, page 178</ref><ref>A Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415595971, page 188-190</ref> − − In Gauri, which is part of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], Brahman is declared as "One without a second", in Sri Rag "everything is born of Him, and is finally absorbed in Him", in Var Asa "whatever we see or hear is the manifestation of Brahman".<ref>SS Kohli (1993), The Sikh and Sikhism, Atlantic, ISBN 81-71563368, page 38</ref> Nesbitt states that the first two words, ''Ik Onkar'', in the twelve-word Mul Mantar at the opening of the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib, has been translated in three different ways by scholars: "There is one god", "This being is one", and as "One reality is".<ref name=eleanor/> − − Similar emphasis on "One without a second" for metaphysical concept of Brahman, is found in ancient texts of Hinduism, such as the Chandogya Upanishad's chapter 6.2.<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, pages 93-94</ref><ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 156-157, 162-163</ref> The ideas about God and Highest Reality in Sikhism share themes found in the ''Saguna'' and ''Nirguna'' concepts of Brahman in Hinduism.<ref name=sskohli39/><ref>N Mandair (2009), Postcolonial Philosophy of Religion (Editor: Purushottama Bilimoria, Andrew B. Irvine), Springer, ISBN 978-9400791770, page 145-146</ref> − − The concept of Ultimate Reality (Brahman) is also referred in Sikhism as ''Nam'', ''Sat-naam'' or ''Naam'', and ''Ik Oankar'' like Hindu [[Om]] symbolizes this Reality.<ref>William Owen Cole and Piara Singh Sambhi (1998), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723134, pages 70-71</ref><ref>HS Singha (2009), Sikh Studies, Vol. 7, Hemkunt Press, ISBN 978-8170102458, page 47</ref> − − ==Brahman in Jainism== − Scholars contest whether the concept of Brahman is rejected or accepted in Jainism. The concept of a theistic God is rejected by Jainism, but ''Jiva'' or "Atman (soul) exists" is held to be a metaphysical truth and central to its theory of rebirths and [[Kevala Jnana]].<ref>Ray Billington (1997), Understanding Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415129657, page 46</ref> − − Bissett states that Jainism accepts the "material world" and "Atman", but rejects Brahman – the metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality and Cosmic Principles found in the ancient texts of Hinduism.<ref>James Bissett, Cultural and Religious Heritage of India, Volume 2: Jainism (Editors: Sharma and Sharma), Mittal, ISBN 81-70999553, page 81</ref> Goswami, in contrast, states that the literature of Jainism has an undercurrent of monist theme, where the self who gains the knowledge of Brahman (Highest Reality, Supreme Knowledge) is identical to Brahman itself.<ref>C Caillat and N Balbir (2008), Jaina Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832473, page ix-x</ref> Jaini states that Jainism neither accepts nor rejects the premise of Ultimate Reality (Brahman), instead Jain ontology adopts a many sided doctrine called ''[[Anekantavada]]''. This doctrine holds that "reality is irreducibly complex" and no human view or description can represent the Absolute Truth.<ref name=pjaini>P Jaini (1998), The Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1578-5, pages 90-93</ref><ref>J Koller (2004), "Why is Anekāntavāda important?", (Editor: Tara Sethia, Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jainism), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-2036-3, pages 400-407</ref> Those who have understood and realized the Absolute Truth are the liberated ones and the Supreme Souls, with [[Kevala Jnana]].<ref name=pjaini/> − − Line 232:
Line 193: − − ==See also== − {{Wikiquote}} − {{div col|colwidth=15em}} − *[[Acintya]] − *[[Om|Aum]] − *[[Bardo]] − *[[Ginnungagap]] − *[[Jiva]] − *[[Mysticism]] − *[[Pure land]] − *[[Universal mind]] − *[[The All]] − *[[Yoga]] − {{div col end}} − − ==Notes== − {{reflist|group=note|33em}} − − ===Bibliography=== − {{refbegin}} − * {{cite book |first=Jeaneane D. |last= Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C| year=2002| publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-93-6|ref=harv}} − * {{cite book |first=Klaus K. |last= Klostermaier |title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC |year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |chapter=Chapter 12}} − * {{Cite book | last =Michaels | first =Axel | year =2004 | title =Hinduism. Past and present | place =Princeton, New Jersey | publisher =Princeton University Press}} − * {{Citation | last =Potter | first =Karl H. | year =2008 | title =The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}} − * {{Citation | last =Puligandla | first =Ramakrishna | year =1997 | title =Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy | place =New Delhi | publisher =D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.}} − * {{Citation | last =Raju | first =P.T. | year =1992 | title =The Philosophical Traditions of India | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}} − * {{Citation | last =Sinari | first =Ramakant | year =2000 | title =Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), "History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta" | place =Delhi | publisher =Centre for Studies in Civilizations}} − {{refend}} − − ==External links== − *[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1396951 The Concept of Brahman in Hindu Philosophy], Haridas Chaudhuri (1954), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 4, No. 1, pages 47–66 − *[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1195422 The Idea of God in Hinduism], A. S. Woodburne (1925), The Journal of Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 52–66 − *[http://www.jstor.org/stable/41694938 The Western View of Hinduism: An Age-old Mistake] (Brahman), JM De Mora (1997), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 78, No. 1/4, pages 1–12 − *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Compares Brahman with concepts of God found in other religions) − *[http://www.hinduwebsite.com/brahmanmain.asp Detailed essays on Brahman] at Hinduwebsite.com − − {{Hindudharma}} − {{Theology}} − {{Philosophy topics}} − {{Indian Philosophy}} − {{Vaishnava philosophy}} − {{Names of God}} − − [[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]] − [[Category:Conceptions of God]] − [[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]
no edit summary
In [[Hinduism]], '''Brahman''' ({{IPAc-en|b|r|ə|h|m|ən}}; ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest Universal Principle, the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Ultimate Reality]] in the universe.<ref name=james122>James Lochtefeld, ''Brahman'', The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 122</ref><ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49-55 (in Upanishads), 318-319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246-248 and 252-255 (in Advaita), 342-343 (in Dvaita), 175-176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}}
In [[Hinduism]], '''Brahman''' ({{IPAc-en|b|r|ə|h|m|ən}}; ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest Universal Principle, the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Ultimate Reality]] in the universe.<ref name=james122>James Lochtefeld, ''Brahman'', The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 122</ref><ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49-55 (in Upanishads), 318-319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246-248 and 252-255 (in Advaita), 342-343 (in Dvaita), 175-176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}}
===Upanishads===
===Upanishads===
The primary focus on the early Upanishads is ''Brahmavidya'' and ''Atmavidya'', that is the knowledge of Brahman and the knowledge of Atman (self, soul), what it is and how it is understood.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, page 56</ref> The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name=sphilips/>
The primary focus on the early Upanishads is ''Brahmavidya'' and ''Atmavidya'', that is the knowledge of Brahman and the knowledge of Atman (self, soul), what it is and how it is understood.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, page 56</ref> The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name=sphilips/>
====Advaita Vedanta====
====Advaita Vedanta====
{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}
{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}
[[Advaita Vedanta]] espouses [[nondualism]]. ''Brahman'' is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name=acdas>AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name=jeffreybrodd/><ref name=barbarasca/><ref name=rdalal>Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40"/> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org"/> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name=acdas/> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.
[[Advaita Vedanta]] espouses [[nondualism]]. ''Brahman'' is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name=acdas>AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name=jeffreybrodd/><ref name=barbarasca/><ref name=rdalal>Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40"/> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org"/> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name=acdas/> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.
''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name=davidlorenzenns/> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name=davidlorenzenns>David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2</ref> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name=karen21/>
''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name=davidlorenzenns/> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name=davidlorenzenns>David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2</ref> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name=karen21/>
== Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas ==
==Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas==
[[Brahma]] is distinct from Brahman.<ref name="BondKunin2003p231"/> Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name=pandeyp40>{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |pages=40 }}</ref> who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.<ref name="Doniger1999p437"/> In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, thereafter a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again.<ref name=pandeyp40/><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |pages=330 }}</ref>
[[Brahma]] is distinct from Brahman.<ref name="BondKunin2003p231"/> Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name=pandeyp40>{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |pages=40 }}</ref> who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.<ref name="Doniger1999p437"/> In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, thereafter a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again.<ref name=pandeyp40/><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |pages=330 }}</ref>
The [[Brahmana]]s are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the [[Vedas]]. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref><ref>[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, pages 67-69</ref> They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the [[Hindu texts|Hindu]] ''[[śruti]]'' literature.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brahmana "Brahmana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''</ref>
The [[Brahmana]]s are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the [[Vedas]]. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref><ref>[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, pages 67-69</ref> They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the [[Hindu texts|Hindu]] ''[[śruti]]'' literature.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brahmana "Brahmana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''</ref>
==References==
==References==
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