Difference between revisions of "Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)"

From Dharmawiki
Jump to navigation Jump to search
(Added Content)
 
(89 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{Distinguish2|[[Brahma]] – the Hindu god, or [[Brahmin]] – the caste or varna, or [[Brahmana]] – a layer of text in the Vedas}}
+
Brahman (Samskrit : ब्रह्मन्) in general signifies the Absolute, Eternal, Changeless, Infinite element without attributes, qualities beyond name and form, yet all encompassing the universe called variously as Brahman, [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], Satyam, Atman.
−
{{Other uses}}
 
−
{{Hinduism small}}
 
−
[[File:Wassertropfen.jpg|right|thumb|Impact of a drop of water in water, a common analogy for Brahman and the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]]]
 
−
In [[Hinduism]], '''Brahman''' ({{IPAc-en|b|r|ə|h|m|ən}}; ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest Universal Principle, the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Ultimate Reality]] in the universe.<ref name=james122>James Lochtefeld, ''Brahman'', The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 122</ref><ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49-55 (in Upanishads), 318-319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246-248 and 252-255 (in Advaita), 342-343 (in Dvaita), 175-176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}}
 
  
−
Brahman is trans empirical, subject-objectless consciousness, which is not conditioned by space, time and causality - the empirical categories. True knowledge is intuition which is supra-intellectual integral experience. Apara Vidya or False knowledge or lower knowledge is discursive, intellectual and categorized.<ref>Course on Vedanta Philosophy at IIT Bombay</ref>
+
While the samskrit word Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) used in this article is a pratipadika (a stem), this entity is refers to the Brahma padarth discussed in the various relevant texts. The first case ending of Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is Brahma (ब्रह्मा) which should not be confused with the deity [[Brahma (ब्रह्मा)|Brahma]] who is the creator among the trimurthi devatas, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.
 +
{{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJgCsvA2-OA&feature=youtu.be
 +
|alignment=right
 +
|dimensions=500x248
 +
|container=frame
 +
|description=Talk on Energy in the Vedas
 +
}}
 +
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
 +
An abstract but highly discussed word, Brahman, is the core of the Vedanta and Upanishad texts, a concept fundamental and unique to Sanatana Dharma. No other philosophy in the world, in the history of thought, has evolved and discussed the concept of Brahman; it is the most ancient mystery of the worlds. Brahman is not equal to "God" of the abrahmic faiths.
  
−
In major schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] it is the material, efficient, formal and final [[Four causes|cause]] of all that exists.<ref name="ptraju" /><ref>Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, ISBN 978-9042015104, pages 43-44</ref><ref name="fxclooney">For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199738724, pages 51-58, 111-115;<br>For monist school of Hinduism, see: B Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis - Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18-35</ref> It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.<ref name="james122" />{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53-55}}<ref name="jeffreybrodd">Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47</ref> Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.<ref name="james122" />{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=50-53}}
+
All Bharatiya sampradayas are unified in agreeing to the existence of Brahman, which is regarded as attributeless supreme entity, Satya by the Advaita vedantin. On the other hand, the Vaishnava vedantin also accepts Brahman as One in character, the reality of eternal existence. They distinguish consciously between Brahman and Supreme Brahman (Shri Narayana or Shri Krishna or Shri Rama).
  
−
Brahman is a [[Vedic Sanskrit]] word, and is conceptualized in Hinduism, states [[Paul Deussen]], as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 91</ref> Brahman is a key concept found in [[Vedas]], and extensively discussed in the early [[Upanishads]].<ref name=sphilips>Stephen Philips (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415187077, pages 1-4</ref> The [[Veda]]s conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle.<ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121">Hananya Goodman (1994), Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791417164, page 121</ref> In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as ''[[Satcitananda|Sat-cit-ānanda]]'' (being-consciousness-bliss){{sfn|Raju|1992|p=228}}<ref>Eliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Vedanta : A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824802714, Chapter 1</ref> and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53-55}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|p=6-7}}{{refn|group=note|[[Advaita Vedanta#Criterion of Sublation|"not sublatable"]],{{sfn|Potter|2008|p=6-7}} the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").}}{{refn|group=note|It is also defined as:
+
variations amongst them are seen only with respect to the path followed to understand and experience Brahman.  
−
* The unchanging, [[Infinity|infinite]], [[Immanence|immanent]], and [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[reality]] which is the Divine Ground of all [[matter]], [[energy]], [[time]], [[space]], [[being]], and everything beyond in this [[Universe]]; that is the one supreme, universal spirit.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jefferey | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref>
+
: वेदान्तमते ‘वस्तु सच्चिदानन्दाद्वयं ब्रह्म तथा अज्ञानादिसकलजडसमूहोऽवस्तु ।’ ‘ब्रह्मैव नित्यं वस्तु तदन्यदखिलमनित्यम् ।’<ref name=":0" />  
−
* The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] universe.<ref>John Bowker (ed.)(2012), ''The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', Oxford University Press.[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-1183]</ref>}}
+
: vedāntamate ‘vastu saccidānandādvayaṁ brahma tathā ajñānādisakalajaḍasamūho'vastu ।’ ‘brahmaiva nityaṁ vastu tadanyadakhilamanityam ।
 +
It should also be noted that Supreme Brahman and ‘Brahman is supreme’ mean two different things. An observation from the position of physical state, Brahman is supreme. But from the position of Atma and Paramatma or Brahman and Parabrahman, the word Brahman and Supreme Brahman denote superiority in position despite qualitative oneness. Thus the ‘Supreme Brahman’ denotes a qualitative superiority of the Brahman.
  
−
Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Soul, Self),<ref name=sphilips/>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49-53}} [[Personal god|personal]],{{refn|group=note|[[Saguna Brahman]], with qualities}} [[Absolute (philosophy)|impersonal]]{{refn|group=note|[[Nirguna Brahman]], without qualities}} or [[Para Brahman]],{{refn|group=note|Supreme}} or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.<ref>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman - Self and All</ref> In [[Dualism|dualistic]] schools of Hinduism such as the theistic [[Dvaita Vedanta]], Brahman is different from Atman (soul) in each being, and therein it shares conceptual framework of [[God]] in major world religions.<ref name=fxclooney/><ref name=mmyers>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 124-127</ref><ref>Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110342550, pages 155-157</ref> In [[Nondualism|non-dual]] schools of Hinduism such as the [[monism|monist]] [[Advaita Vedanta]], Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.<ref name=jeffreybrodd/><ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref><ref>John E. Welshons (2009), One Soul, One Love, One Heart, New World Library, ISBN 978-1577315889, pages 17-18</ref>
+
==व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology ==
 +
Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is derived from the dhatus बृहँ (brh) and बृहिँ (Brhi) in the meaning of वृद्धौ (vrddhi)<ref name=":0">Shabdakalpadruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82 See ब्रह्म])</ref> - बृंहति वर्द्धते निरतिशयमहत्त्व-लक्षणवृद्धिमान् भवतीत्यर्थः - to expand, grow, enlarge, one which is beyond comparison. It is used to explain the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme force which is attributeless.    
  
−
==Etymology and related terms==
+
Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of a deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self.  
−
[[Sanskrit]] ''Brahman'' (an ''n''-stem, nominative ''{{IAST|bráhmā}}'') from a [[root (linguistics)|root]] ''{{IAST|bṛh}}-'' "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge"  is a neutral noun to be distinguished from the masculine ''{{IAST|[[brahmán]]}}''—denoting a person associated with Brahman, and from [[Brahmā]], the creator God of the Hindu Trinity, the [[Trimurti]]. Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world",{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=222}} while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined".{{sfn|Sinari|2000|p=384}}
 
  
−
In [[Vedic Sanskrit]]:
+
It is distinct from:
−
*''Br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>n'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter">Not Masculine or Feminine  (see [[Grammatical gender]]).</ref> [[gender]]) from root ''bṛh-'', means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".<ref name=jangondaetymo>[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268-269</ref>
+
*A [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)]] which is the prose explanation of the mantras, one of the four divisions of the Vedic texts.
−
*''Br<u>a</u>hmān<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems ''brh<u>a</u>'' (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit ''-man-'' from Indo-European root ''-men-'' which denotes some manifested form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".<ref name=jangondaetymo/>
+
*A Brahmana (ब्राह्मणः) (masculine) is one who belongs to the Brahmana varna (first of the four varnas); in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as [[Brahmin (ब्राह्मणः)]]. 
 +
*[[Brahma (ब्रह्मा)]] is a deity who has the role of the creator among the [[Trimurti|Trimurtis]], having a lifetime measured in kalpas (see [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]])
 +
*[[Ishvara (ईश्वरः)]], in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and a personal Brahman.
 +
== Evolution of Concept of Brahman ==
 +
The Upanishads which develop ideas that are in germ in the Veda Samhitas are the only source of definite knowledge, to answer the questions which ever baffled the human mind. Questions that man has been trying to answer from ages include
 +
* whether our personality survives death?
 +
* where does man go after death?
 +
* is there existence of life in a world called devalokas/brahmaloka?
 +
* does he ever return to this world?
 +
* what is the final goal of life?
 +
* what is nature of the final goal of the world?
 +
* what is the nature and definition of the supreme entity that man believes in?
 +
* nature of Atman (individual Jivatma) and its relationship with other Jagat (world) and with Supreme entity (Brahman)?
 +
* what is the ultimate truth of existence?
 +
* how did the universe originate?
 +
Obviously no other knowledge source has ever attempted to answer such questions and it is only Upanishads and other Vedanta texts that give us the last word on all such matters apart from practicing what is given in them. Through no other means is it possible for us to get convincing answers to our queries regarding them. Not being the work of man (Apaurusheya) Upanishads are free from the usual shortcomings of all human endeavor such as error, doubt, and deception. It is open to us all to verify their statements by actual experience along the lines prescribed by them. The truths inculcated in them are not mere theories, but facts, and as such are invulnerable.<ref name=":2">Swami Madhavananda author of A Bird's-Eye View of the Upanishads (1958) ''The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 1 : The Early Phases (Prehistoric, Vedic and Upanishadic, Jaina and Buddhist).'' Calcutta : The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Pages 345-365)</ref>
  
−
In later Sanskrit usage:
+
=== Questions ===
−
*''Br<u>a</u>hm<u>a</u>'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman'' (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter" /> [[gender]]) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below. ''Brahm'' is another variant of ''Brahman''.
+
Any doctrine or siddhanta about Brahman involves theories explaining certain common groups of questions
−
*''Br<u>a</u>hmā'' (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singlular), ''Brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) ([[masculine]] [[gender]]), means the deity or [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]] [[Brahma (god)|Prajāpati Brahmā]]. He is one of the members of the [[Trimurti|Hindu trinity]] and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into [[Purusha]] at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new [[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]].
+
* emergence, sustenance and dissolution of the world (ontology)
 +
* what is real and the principles applying to Jagat, Atman, Brahman etc (metaphysics)
 +
* nature of things - sentient and insentient things, Brahman and others.
 +
* study of means of understanding knowledge, example Pramanas (epistemology)
 +
* relationship between individual Jivatmas, the inanimate matter (Jagat), Supreme Being (Ishvara)  
 +
* modes of attaining the final goal Moksha (soteriology)
 +
* essence and value attributed to Brahman and other aspects of Vedanta (axiology)
 +
'''Shvetasvatara Upanishad''' in the very first mantra puts forth these questions as deliberated by the Brahmavadins<blockquote>ॐ ब्रह्मवादिनो वदन्ति । किं कारणं ब्रह्म कुतः स्म जाता जीवाम केन क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा । अधिष्ठिताः केन सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे ब्रह्मविदो व्यवस्थाम् ॥ १ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1) oṁ brahmavādino vadanti । kiṁ kāraṇaṁ brahma kutaḥ sma jātā jīvāma kena kva ca sampratiṣṭhā । adhiṣṭhitāḥ kena sukhetareṣu vartāmahe brahmavido vyavasthām ॥ 1 ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1)</blockquote>Summary : People accustomed to deliberate on Brahman discuss : What is the nature of Brahman, the Source (किं कारणं ब्रह्म)? From what have been born (कुतः स्म जाता)? By what do we live (जीवाम केन)? And where do we exist, rest, at the time of dissolution (क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा)? O Knowers of Brahman, regulated by whom (अधिष्ठिताः केन) do we conform to the system regarding happiness and its opposite namely sorrows (सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे)?
  
−
These are distinct from:
+
In this way the question "What is the cause" (किं कारणं । kiṁ kāraṇaṁ) pertains to the primordial cause of the regulation of creation, continuance and dissolution.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) ''Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya.'' Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 45-46)</ref>
−
*A ''brāhm<u>a</u>ṇ<u>a</u>'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced {{IPA-sa|ˈbraːhməɳə|}}), (which literally means "pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the [[Veda|Vedic mantras]]—an integral part of the Vedic literature.
 
−
*A ''brāhm<u>a</u>ṇ<u>a</u>'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "[[Brahmin]]". This usage is also found in the [[Atharva Veda]]. In neuter plural form, Brahmāṇi. See [[Vedic priest]].
 
−
*''[[Ishvara]]'', (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In [[Visishtadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]], however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal Brahman.
 
−
*''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]s'', the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme Brahman (See [[Para Brahman]]). The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations.
 
  
−
==History and literature==
+
'''Mundakopanishad''' also raises the question of Knowledge and seeks answers to understand the nature of [[Vidya (विद्या)|vidya]]<blockquote>कस्मिन्नु भगवो विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवतीति ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)<ref name=":4">Mundaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Complete])</ref> kasminnu bhagavo vijñāte sarvamidaṁ vijñātaṁ bhavatīti ॥ 3 ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)</blockquote>Meaning : What is that by knowing which everything in this universe is known?
  
−
===Vedic===
+
=== Answers ===
−
''Brahman'' is a concept present in Vedic [[Samhita]]s, the oldest layer of the [[Vedas]] dated to the 2nd millennium BCE. For example,<ref name=barbarah29/>
+
The answer to the above natural quests are found in the conception of a Supreme entity or Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe, from whom, indeed, beings are born, through whom they live and unto whom they return and merge in. The knower of Brahman attains the highest.
  
−
{{Quote|
+
== ब्रह्मलक्षणम् ॥ Defining Brahman ==
−
<poem>
+
The characteristics of Brahman are comprehensively put forth in the Taittriya Upanishad in the Brahmanandavalli as follows
−
The ''Ṛcs'' are limited (''parimita''),
+
सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । satyaṁ jñānamanantaṁ brahma । Brahman is Truth, Knowledge, Infinite (Tait. Upan. 2.1.1)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama (Page 286)</ref>
−
The ''Samans'' are limited,
+
In defining the Brahman, the different vedanta systems critically discuss whether Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma (सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म)  denotes the very svarupa or Brahman using the grammatical rule of samanadhikaranya (सामानाधिकरण्यम्). 
−
And the ''Yajuses'' are limited,
 
−
But of the Word ''Brahman'', there is no end.
 
−
</poem>
 
−
|Taittiriya Samhita VII.3.1.4|Translated by Barbara Holdrege<ref name=barbarah29>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, page 29</ref>}}
 
  
−
The concept ''Brahman'' is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedas.<ref name=mauricebrahman>[[Maurice Bloomfield]], [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/656/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance], Harvard University Press, pages 656-662</ref> For example, it is found in [[Rig veda]] hymns such as 2.2.10,<ref>Original: वयमग्ने अर्वता वा सुवीर्यं '''ब्रह्मणा''' वा चितयेमा जनाँ अति । अस्माकं द्युम्नमधि पञ्च कृष्टिषूच्चा स्वर्ण शुशुचीत दुष्टरम् ॥१०॥<br>Source: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_२.२ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं २.२] Wikisource</ref> 6.21.8,<ref>Original: स तु श्रुधीन्द्र नूतनस्य '''ब्रह्मण्य'''तो वीर कारुधायः । त्वं ह्यापिः प्रदिवि पितॄणां शश्वद्बभूथ सुहव एष्टौ ॥८॥<br>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_६.२१ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ६.२१] Wikisource</ref> 10.72.2<ref>Original: '''ब्रह्मण'''स्पतिरेता सं कर्मार इवाधमत् । देवानां पूर्व्ये युगेऽसतः सदजायत ॥२॥<br>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.७२ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.७२] Wikisource</ref> and in [[Atharvaveda|Atharva veda]] hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131.<ref name=mauricebrahman/> The concept is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example:<ref name=mauricebrahman/> Aitareya [[Brahmana]] 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 13.5.2.5, Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.8.10, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya [[Aranyaka]] 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in the Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the [[Vedas#Vedanga|vedāṅga]] (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5.<ref name=mauricebrahman/>
+
Advaitins hold that in the above Taittriryopanishad vakya, the terms convey an impartite and non-relational sense, because the sentence conveys the idea of one entity (a homogenous being) only when all its constituent terms denote one and the same thing (devoid of all difference), just as in "He is that Devadatta".  
 +
 +
Brahman is again defined simply as having सच्चिदानन्दलक्षणम् as defined in Nrsimha Uttaratapaniya Upanishad and reiterated in Panchadashi composed by Vidyaranyaswami.  
 +
सच्चिदानन्दमात्रः स स्वराड् भवति । saccidānandamātraḥ sa svarāḍ bhavati । He is effulgent with (the qualities of) Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss (Nrsim. Uttar. Upan.7)<ref>Nrsimha Uttarataapaniya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D-1 Complete])</ref>
  
−
[[Jan Gonda]] states that the diverse reference of ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning".<ref name=jangondameaning>[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 269-271</ref> There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda.<ref name=jangondameaning/> In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of ''Brahman'' is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 271-272</ref>
+
सच्चित्सुखात्मकं ब्रह्म ...। saccitsukhātmakaṁ brahma ...। The nature of Brahman is existence, consciousness, and bliss (Panchadasi 13.62)<ref>Panchadasi ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_-_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0% Prakarana 13] )</ref><ref>Swami Swahananda (1967) ''Panchadasi of Sri Vidyaranya Swami (English Translation)'' Madras : Sri Ramakrishna Math (Pages 521-522)</ref>
  
−
Barbara Holdrege states that the concept ''Brahman'' is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (''Sabdabrahman''),<ref>See Rigveda Chapter 1.164;<br>Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120804265, pages 34-35</ref> as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions.<ref>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, page 24</ref> Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists.<ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121"/> [[Gavin Flood]] states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of ''Brahman'' evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], soul)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference".<ref name=gavinflood84>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 84-85</ref>
+
==== ब्रह्मतत्वम् ॥ Nature of Brahman ====
 +
Discussion on [[Brahmatattva (ब्रह्मतत्वम्)|Brahmatattva]] or nature of Brahman is extensive and ageless with numerous Upanishad and Vedanta bhashyas on the subject explaining different characteristics. Putting together the Upanishadic and Brahmasutra explanations, Brahman is said to have the following features
  
−
===Upanishads===
+
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
−
[[File:Mozzercork - Heart (by).jpg|thumb|Swan (Hansa, हंस) is the symbol for Brahman-Atman in Hindu iconography.<ref>Lindsay Jones (2005), Encyclopedia of religion, Volume 13, Macmillan Reference, ISBN 978-0028657332, page 8894, Quote: "In Hindu iconography the swan personifies Brahman-Atman, the transcendent yet immanent ground of being, the Self."</ref><ref>Denise Cush (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415556231, page 697</ref>]]
+
* All-perceiving (सर्वानुभूः)
−
The primary focus on the early Upanishads is ''Brahmavidya'' and ''Atmavidya'', that is the knowledge of Brahman and the knowledge of Atman (self, soul), what it is and how it is understood.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, page 56</ref> The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name=sphilips/>
+
* Immortal (तदमृतँ)
 +
* Eternal (नित्यम्)
 +
* Formless (अरूपम्)
 +
* Undiminishing (अव्ययम्)
 +
* Hidden in every being (भूतेषु गूढः)
 +
* Constant (ध्रुवं)
 +
* Birthless (अजः)
 +
* Lacks vital force (अप्राणः)
 +
* Without mind (अमनाः)
 +
* Unattached (असङ्गम्)
 +
* Without beginning or end (अनाद्यनन्तं)
 +
* Unfathomable (अग्राह्यम्)
 +
* Cannot be inferred (अलक्षणं)
 +
* Unthinkable (अचिन्त्यम्)
 +
* Indescribable by words (अव्यपदेश्यम्)
 +
* Distinct from Buddhi (महतः परं)  
 +
* Pure Intelligence (प्रज्ञानघन)  
 +
* Pure Consciousness (चैतन्यमात्रम्)}}
  
−
[[Paul Deussen]] states that the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads expands to metaphysical, ontological and soteriological themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the universe",<ref name=pauldeussen243>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 243, 325-344, 363, 581</ref> the "principle of the world",<ref name=pauldeussen243/> the "absolute",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 358, 371</ref> the "general, universal",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 305, 476</ref> the "cosmic principle",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 110, 315-316, 495, 838-851</ref> the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 211, 741-742</ref> the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 308-311, 497-499</ref> the "knowledge",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 181, 237, 444, 506-544, 570-571, 707, 847-850</ref> the "soul, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful",<ref name=pauldeussen52>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585-586, 838-851</ref> the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 173-174, 188-198, 308-317, 322-324, 367, 447, 496, 629-637, 658, 707-708</ref> the "universe within each living being and the universe outside",<ref name=pauldeussen52/> the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 600, 619-620, 647, 777</ref>
+
==== मूर्तामूर्तस्थितिः ॥ Two States of Brahman ====
 +
Brhdaranyanka Upanishad is one of the earliest texts mentioning the existence of the two states of Brahman<blockquote>द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे । मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च, मर्त्यं चामृतं च । स्थितं च यच्च । सच्च त्यं च ॥ बृह. २,३.१ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.1)<ref name=":12">Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_2p Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>Indeed, there are two forms of Brahman, gross (मूर्तं) and subtle (अमूर्तं) (with form and formless), mortal and immortal (changing and unchanging), finite and infinite, defined and undefined (existent and beyond (existence)).<ref name=":0222" />
  
−
Gavin Flood summarizes the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads to be the "essence, the smallest particle of the cosmos and the infinite universe", the "essence of all things which cannot be seen, though it can be experienced", the "self, soul within each person, each being", the "truth", the "reality", the "absolute", the "bliss" (''ananda'').<ref name=gavinflood84/>
+
Brahman or the Supreme Self has but two forms, through the superimposition of which, by ignorance, the formless Supreme Brahman is defined or made conceivable. Which are those two forms? The gross and subtle. The other phases of the gross and subtle are included in them; so they are counted as two only. Here, the gross or Defined (Saguna), having particular characteristics that distinguish it from others and Undefined, the opposite of that, which can only be distantly referred to, as something unknown. The subtle is immortal not subject to destruction. This 'being' is the perfection of the two subtle elements (air and ether), because they emanate from the undifferentiated in order to form the subtle body of [[Hiranyagarbha (हिरण्यगर्भः)|Hiranyagarbha]] (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.2-3).
  
−
According to [[Radhakrishnan]], the sages of the [[Upanishads]] teach Brahman as the ultimate essence of material phenomena that cannot be seen or heard, but whose nature can be known through the development of self-knowledge (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|atma jnana]]'').<ref>pp.77, Radhakrishnan, S, ''The Principal Upanisads,'' HarperCollins India, 1994</ref>
+
According to Advaita siddhanta, the Brahman that is (respectively) connected with the body and  organs, which are the product of the five elements, is designated as gross and subtle, is mortal and immortal and includes the impressions created by those elements, is the omniscient, omnipotent, conditioned Brahman Saguna). It consists of actions, their factors and their results, and admitting of all kinds of association. That same Brahman, again, is devoid of all limiting adjuncts, the object of intuition, birthless, undecaying, immortal, fearless, and beyond the reach of even speech and mind, being above duality, and is described as 'Not this, not this.'<ref>Swami Madhavananda (1950 Third Edition) ''The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentary of Sankaracharya''. Almora : Advaita Ashrama (Page 329)</ref>
  
−
The Upanishads contain several ''mahā-vākyas'' or "Great Sayings"  on the concept of Brahman:<ref name="EoH 270">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0816073368|pages=270}}</ref>
+
We now proceed to discuss the conditioned and unconditioned Brahman in further sections in light of the different schools of thought of vedanta.
−
{| class="wikitable sortable"|-
+
 
−
! Text!! Upanishad  !! Translation !! Reference
+
== Brahman as in Different Sampradayas ==
 +
 
 +
=== Unity of Brahman ===
 +
Unlike the abrahmic faith, which creates a no-diversity in the process of sadhana or in the perfection (salvation of the Abrahmic faith), in Sanatana Dharma sadhana and sadhaka are unique as they are in the ultimate perfect state. According to Advaitins, the mokhsa is becoming one with Brahman and the Vaishnavaites experience Brahman in the form of Narayana and achieving the Narayana in the Vaikuntha loka. Within the Vaishnava vedanta there is more diversity of perfection with one achieving Vaikuntha; some call it as Goloka, others as Ayodhya, some others as Krishna, Narasimha depending on the deity that they are worship in their sadhana state. Therefore for a Vaishnava sadhana and sadhya are non-different.
 +
 
 +
Thus, it appears as there are many deities but the character they experience is of the same essence of Brahman. As to the abrahmic faiths, they cannot comprehend the perfected stage manifesting in this diversity of forms.
 +
 
 +
One many note that the habits, jivana vidhana, daivatarchara of practitioners of Advaita and Vaishnava vedantins are same, they perform all the samskaras which are essentially the same with minor local flavors. A mature Sanatana dharmi does not "tolerate" but "celebrates" the differences of unequality and diversity.
 +
 
 +
=== Differences about Brahman ===
 +
Everyone of the vedantic system-builders - Sri Shankara, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and others-has followed his own standpoint in his commentary of the Upanishads, bringing a mind illumined, directed by his own individual adhyatmik experience and interpreted all the passages to uphold his position and popularize the system of thought he expounded.<ref>Swami Ghanananda author of The Dawn of Indian Philosophy (1958) ''The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 1 : The Early Phases (Prehistoric, Vedic and Upanishadic, Jaina and Buddhist).'' Calcutta : The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Pages 333-344)</ref> The [[relationship of Atman and Brahman]] is the primary basis of defining the various vedanta schools, for example, Advaita school is so named as it posits that Atman and Brahman are one and the same, while Dvaita school maintains that Atman and Brahman are distinctly two entities.
 +
 
 +
While fundamentally in agreement regarding the existence of Brahman various Vedantic schools differ as in following aspects
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|+Key Differences of Brahman in Three Vedanta Sampradayas
 +
!Concept
 +
!Advaita
 +
!Dvaita
 +
!Vishistadvaita
 +
|-
 +
|Concept of Brahman
 +
|Nirguna (Impersonal)
 +
|Saguna (Personal)
 +
|Saguna (Personal)
 
|-
 
|-
−
| '''अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि'''<br>''aham brahmāsmi'' || [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 1.4.10  || "I am Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n171/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 1.4.10, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad - Shankara Bhashya, page 145</ref>
+
|Who is Brahman
 +
|Attributeless without Name and Form
 +
|Vishnu or Krishna is Supreme Deity
 +
|Brahman or Purushottama
 
|-
 
|-
−
| '''अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म'''<br>''ayam ātmā brahma'' || Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5 || "The Self is Brahman" ||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n737/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad - Shankara Bhashya, pages 711-712</ref>
+
|Real and Unreal
 +
|Brahman is Real, Samsara is Unreal
 +
|Universe and its components are Real with five-fold difference
 +
|Both Brahman and Samsara are Real
 
|-
 
|-
−
| '''सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म'''<br>''sarvam khalvidam brahma'' ||[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 3.14.1 || "All this is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_२ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.१ ॥तृतीयॊऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br>English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1] Oxford University Press, page 48;<br>Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii-xix</ref>
+
|Efficient cause of the Universe (effect)
 +
|Cause and effect are one and the same Brahman
 +
|Vishnu is the efficient cause of the Universe
 +
|Vishnu is the efficient cause of the Universe
 
|-
 
|-
−
| '''एकमेवाद्वितीयम्'''<br>''ekam evadvitiyam'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1|| "That [Brahman] is one, without a second" ||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br>English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, page 93;<br>Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii-xix</ref>
+
|Relationship of Jivatma and Brahman
 +
|Absolute Identity (Kevaladvaita)
 +
|Absolute Distinction (Kevala Bheda)
 +
|Two Separate entities where one controls the other but are in Unity (Visishitadvaita)
 
|-
 
|-
−
| '''तत्त्वमसि'''<br>''[[tat tvam asi]]'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq.  || "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman")||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br>English Translation:Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n267/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 6.8, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 246-250</ref><ref>AS Gupta, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397392 The Meanings of "That Thou Art"], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 12, No. 2, pages 125-134</ref>
+
|Origin of the Universe
 +
|From Brahman through Maya
 +
|Vishnu is the manifestor of the Universe
 +
|Vishnu is the Creator
 
|-
 
|-
−
| '''प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म'''<br>''prajnānam brahma''||[[Aitareya Upanishad]] 3.3.7  || "Knowledge is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऐतरेयोपनिषद् ऐतरेयोपनिषद्] Wikisource<br>English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/246/mode/2up Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7] Oxford University Press, page 246</ref>
+
|Realization Method
 +
|Atma transcending Avidya
 +
|Knowledge of Vishnu and Universe
 +
|Bhakti leads to Brahman
 +
|-
 +
|Moksha Method
 +
|Jnana that Jivatma and Paramatma are One
 +
|Attainment of Vishnu through Vishnuprasada (grace)
 +
|Attainment of Vishnu through Nityakainkarya
 
|}
 
|}
 +
[[Advaita Vedanta (अद्वैतवेदान्तः)]] sampradaya totally dismisses the concept that Brahman, Atman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained by Sri Adi Shankaracharya and Advaita Bhashyas. Important postulates of Advaita include
 +
* Brahman is without attributes (Nirguna Brahman), and is Satyam (Real); all else is Mithya (unreal).
 +
* Atman (Jivatma) and Paramatma are the same without any difference. 
 +
* The idea of difference between them arises from Avidya (ignorance, lack of yadartha jnana) and when Atma transcends Avidya, it brings about the realization of the All-ness and wholeness of the Atman as indicated by the vidya-sutra  <blockquote>आत्मेत्येवोपासीतात्र ह्येते सर्व एकं भवन्ति । ātmetyevopāsītātra hyete sarva ekaṁ bhavanti । (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.7)<ref name=":5">Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>
 +
* The Universe springs from Brahman, just like hairs on a man's head; it is the work of Maya. 
 +
* Cause and effect are one and the same (कार्यकारण-अभेदः) just like an aggregation of threads is seen in the form of a cloth. 
 +
As long as the Atma identifies itself with the [[Upadhi (उपाधिः)|Upadhis]] (vehicle of atma), it remains bound in Samsara, when it Knows Itself as Self, it becomes free from Samsara. For those who are not yet ready for this effort of Self Knowledge, ritual is not only desirable but also necessary. Those who reached the point where Atma only attracts them, Jnanam is enough and by Sadhana they achieve Brahman, the goal. However, a Jnani does not abstain from Karma or actions (similar as in Samkhya siddhanta), he best understands them and actively engages in them, being unattached to the results and not by the dictate of desire. Such a person is called Jivanmukta.
  
−
The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts.<ref name=hume314/> The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (Soul, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman is identical with Atman, that the Brahman is inside man – thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Indian philosophies.<ref name=hume314/><ref name=gjha314>[https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya] Ganganath Jha (Translator), pages 150-157</ref><ref>For modern era cites:
+
For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the conversation between [[Uddalaka and Shvetaketu (उद्दालकः श्वेतकेतुः च।)|Uddalaka and Shvetaketu]]. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cycle of birth and death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Buddhi only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/EightUpanishadsWithSankarabhashyamSwamiGambhiranandaVol11989/page/n198 Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya)]'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>
−
*Anthony Warder (2009), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812444, pages 25-28;
 
−
*DD Meyer (2012), Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1443834919, page 250;
 
−
*Joel Brereton (1995), Eastern Canons: Approaches to the Asian Classics (Editors: William Theodore De Bary, Irene Bloom), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231070058, page 130;
 
−
*S Radhakrishnan (1914), The Vedanta philosophy and the Doctrine of Maya, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 24, No. 4, pages 431-451</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
This whole universe is Brahman. In tranquility, let one worship It, as ''Tajjalan'' (that from which he came forth, as that into which he will be dissolved, as that in which he breathes).
 
−
|Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1<ref name=hume314>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n229/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 3.14.1-3.14.4, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 209-210</ref><ref name=pauldeussen314>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 110-111 with preface and footnotes</ref>}}
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
Man is a creature of his ''Kratumaya'' (क्रतुमयः, will, purpose). Let him therefore have for himself this will, this purpose: The intelligent, whose body is imbued with life-principle, whose form is light, whose thoughts are driven by truth, whose self is like space (invisible but ever present), from whom all works, all desires, all sensory feelings encompassing this whole world, the silent, the unconcerned, this is me, my Self, my Soul within my heart.
 
−
|Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 - 3.14.3<ref name=hume314/><ref name=maxmuller314>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.13.7], The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 48 with footnotes</ref>}}
 
−
{{Quote|
 
−
This is my Soul in the innermost heart, greater than the earth, greater than the aerial space, greater than these worlds. This Soul, this Self of mine is that Brahman.
 
−
|Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.3 - 3.14.4<ref name=pauldeussen314/><ref name=maxmuller314/>}}
 
−
 
 
−
Paul Deussen notes that teachings similar to above on Brahman, re-appeared centuries later in the words of the 3rd century CE [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] Roman philosopher [[Plotinus]] in Enneades 5.1.2.<ref name=pauldeussen314/>
 
−
 
 
−
==Discussion==
 
−
 
 
−
===Brahman as a metaphysical concept===
 
−
Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of [[metaphysics]]: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/metaphysics/ Metaphysics], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (June 13, 2015)</ref> Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] in various orthodox Hindu schools. Māyā pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman – the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.<ref name=aegough>Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415245227, pages 47-48</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
In addition to the concept of Brahman, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] – or soul, self – which is also considered ultimately real.<ref name=aegough/> The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the [[dualism|dual]] and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from Brahman, or same as Brahman. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as distinct are theistic, and [[Dvaita Vedanta]] and later [[Nyaya]] schools illustrate this premise.<ref>Roy W. Perrett (Editor, 2000), Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics, Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0815336082, page xvii;<br>KK Chakrabarti (1999), Classical Indian Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791441718 pages 279-292</ref> Those that consider Brahman and Atman as same are monist or pantheistic, and [[Advaita Vedanta]], later [[Samkhya]]<ref>John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, pages 60-62</ref> and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] schools illustrate this metaphysical premise.<ref>Julius Lipner (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 22-23</ref><ref>Laurie Patton (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 45-50</ref><ref>JD Fowler (1996), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex University Press, ISBN 978-1898723608, pages 135-137</ref> In schools that equate Brahman with Atman, Brahman is the sole, ultimate reality.<ref name="acdas"/> The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of soul within each human being, with the soul of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality ''Brahman''.<ref>William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812512, page 5</ref><ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101-109 (in German), also pages 69-99;<br>[http://www.vedantaadvaita.org/AdvaitaVedanta_3.htm Advaita Vedanta - A Bird's Eye View], Topic III: Philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, D. Krishna Ayyar (2011)</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, Maya is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality – the Brahman. Maya is unconscious, Brahman-Atman is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, Brahman is the figurative ''Upādāna'' – the principle and the cause.<ref name=aegough/> Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-Brahman is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree.<ref name=aegough/>
 
−
 
 
−
While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', they also expound on Brahman as ''[[saguna Brahman]]'' – the Brahman with attributes, and ''[[nirguna Brahman]]'' – the Brahman without attributes.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The ''nirguna Brahman'' is the Brahman as it really is, however, the ''saguna Brahman'' is posited as a means to realizing ''nirguna Brahman'', but the Hinduism schools declare ''saguna Brahman'' to be ultimately illusory.<ref name=williamw/> The concept of the ''saguna Brahman'', such as in the form of [[avatar]]s, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.<ref name=williamw>William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Brahman as an ontological concept===
 
−
Brahman, along with Soul/Self (Atman) are part of the ontological<ref>that is things, beings or truths that are presumed to exist for its philosophical theory to be true, and what is the nature of that which so exists?; see: Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103</ref> premises of Indian philosophy.<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (June 13, 2015)</ref><ref>Stephen H. Phillips (2001), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1400164 Could There Be Mystical Evidence for a Nondual Brahman? A Causal Objection], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 51, No. 4, pages 492-506</ref> Different schools of Indian philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. [[Buddhism]] and [[Carvaka]] school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a soul, a self" (individual Atman or Brahman in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, [[Jainism]] and [[Ajivika]]s hold that there exists "a soul, a self".<ref>KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;<br />Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]] is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";<br />Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=2}}, pages 2-4<br />Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?], Philosophy Now;<br />John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref><ref>M Prabhakar (2012), Review: An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Philosophy in Review, 32(3), pages 158-160</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Brahman as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the [[Advaita Vedanta]] and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]].<ref name=barbarasca>Barbara Holdrege (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 241-242</ref><ref>Anantanand Rambachan (2014), A Hindu Theology of Liberation: Not-Two Is Not One, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438454559, pages 131-142</ref><ref>Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791438152, pages 298-300;<br>Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415829809, pages 135-136, '''Quote''': "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter."</ref> Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of Brahman (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of Atman-Brahman is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (''sat''), consciousness (''cit'') and full of bliss (''ananda''), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded.<ref name=barbarasca/>
 
−
 
 
−
In theistic schools, in contrast, such as [[Dvaita Vedanta]], the nature of Brahman is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's soul is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the Brahman (therein viewed as the Godhead).<ref>Francis Clooney and Tony Stewart (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 166-167</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to Brahman, reality and nature of existence. [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology.<ref>Randy Kloetzli and Alf Hiltebeitel (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, page 554</ref> The [[Carvaka]] school denied Brahman and Atman, and held a materialist ontology.<ref>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 30-31</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Brahman as an axiological concept===
 
−
Brahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of [[axiology]]: ethics and aesthetics.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, pages 56-59</ref><ref>GC Pande (1990), Foundations of Indian Culture, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807105, pages 49-50</ref> ''Ananda'' (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of Brahman, as the universal inner harmony.<ref>Michael W. Myers (1998), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1400017 Śaṅkarācārya and Ānanda], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 4, pages 553-567</ref><ref>Robert S. Hartman (2002), The Knowledge of Good: Critique of Axiological Reason, Rodopi, ISBN 978-9042012202, page 225</ref> Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense.<ref>TMP Mahadevan (1954), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397291 The Metaphysics of Śaṁkara], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 3, No. 4, pages 359-363</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The axiological concepts of Brahman and Atman is central to Hindu theory of values.<ref>Arvind Sharma (1999), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism], The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2, pages 223-256</ref> A statement such as ‘I am Brahman’, states Shaw, means ‘I am related to everything,’ and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa.<ref>JL Shaw (2011), [http://www.sjsu.edu/people/anand.vaidya/courses/comparativephilosophy/s1/Freedom-East-and-West-by-J-L-Shaw.pdf Freedom: East and West], ''SOPHIA'', Vol 50, Springer Science, pages 481–497</ref> Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where Brahman and Atman are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasize individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self.<ref>Katherine L Tietge (1997), ''Ontology and Genuine Moral Action: Jñaña (Intuitive Perception) Ethics and Karma-Yoga in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta and Schopenhauer's On the Basis of Morality'', Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Philosophy, Southern Illinois University (USA), [http://philpapers.org/rec/TIEOAG Archive Link]</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and Atman, states Bauer.<ref name=nancybauer/> The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's soul with the Brahman, the soul of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself.<ref name=nancybauer/> It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human soul and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good.<ref name=nancybauer/><ref>Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195644418, pages 57-61</ref> Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature.<ref name=nancybauer>Nancy Bauer (1987), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399082 Advaita Vedānta and Contemporary Western Ethics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 1, pages 36-50</ref> The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Indian philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe.<ref name=nikam/> The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual soul is the universal soul, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman.<ref name=nikam>NA Nikam (1952), A Note on the Individual and His Status in Indian Thought, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 3, pages 254-258</ref>
 
  
−
===Brahman as a soteriological concept: Moksha===
+
The [[Dvaita Vedanta (द्वैतवेदान्तः)]] sampradaya upholds the distinctness of Paramatma from Jivatma both in material world and in Moksha. It teaches that Vishnu is the Supreme Deity and formed the Universe out of Prkriti which is already existing. Here the concept of Supreme (Brahman) is seen in Vishnu, who is the efficient cause of the Universe. It follows the Samkhya darshana way of describing the evolution and that Jiva travels on a adhyatmik journey to attain the Paramatma. Jiva attains Moksha in which it remains in Bhoga (भोगः । enjoyment of eternal bliss) with the Paramatma. The Jiva reaches one or other of the four conditions
−
{{Main|Moksha}}
+
#Sarupya (सारूप्यम् । Same form as the Divine Form)
 +
#Salokya (सालोक्यम् । Residence in the same loka as the Divine Form eg : Vaikuntha)
 +
#Sannidhya (सान्निध्यम् । Being in proximity to the Divine Form)
 +
#Sayujyam (सायुज्यम् । Union with the Divine Form).
 +
However, this union is not to be considered as one of identity of nature. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":0222">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref>).
  
−
The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of [[moksha]]. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss),<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press, pages 124-125</ref> because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.<ref>Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp 210-215</ref>
+
The [[Vishistadvaita Vedanta (विशिष्टाद्वैतवेदान्तः)]] sampradaya upholds separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । dissolution) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman. Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.<ref name=":0222" />
  
−
The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual souls and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions.<ref name=mmyers/> The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's soul with the distinct and separate Brahman ([[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every soul journeys towards in its own way for moksha.<ref>Betty, Stafford (2010) "Dvaita, Advaita, And Viśiṣṭadvaita: Contrasting Views Of Mokṣa", Asian Philosophy, pages 215-224</ref>
+
== Atman as Amsha of Brahma ==
 +
Shvetasvatara Upanishad is one of the important texts that explains the difference between the Jivatma (variously called as [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] closely translated as individual soul) and Brahman. The upanishad first shows the distinction between the Individual Self (Jivatma) and the Supreme Self (Brahman) due to the limiting adjuncts in the observable state (empirical) and then reveals Amrtattva (immortality) as a consequence of the realization of That (supreme self):<ref name=":1">Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) ''Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya.'' Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 75-78)</ref><blockquote>संयुक्तमेतत्क्षरमक्षरं च व्यक्ताव्यक्तं भरते विश्वमीशः । अनीशश्चात्मा बध्यते भोक्तृभावाज्ज्ञात्वा देवं मुच्यते सर्वपाशैः ॥ ८ ॥ (Shvet. Upan. 1.7)<ref>Shvetasvatara Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>Ishvara nourishes this universe consisting of effect and cause, the  Vyaktam (व्यक्तम् । manifested) and Avyaktam (अव्यक्तम् । Unmanifested) which are respectively the Ksharam (क्षरम् । mutable, destructible) and Aksharam (अक्षरम् । immutable, indestructible) which are mutually associated (संयुक्तम्). The individual Atman, which is not independent, becomes bound due to its sense of being the Bhoktr (भोक्तृभावात् । enjoyer); realizing the effulgent Self (supreme), it becomes freed from all bondages.
  
−
==Schools of thought==
+
Simply put the Upanishad expresses the difference between the Atman and Brahman due to the limiting adjuncts (Atman is possessed of the individual body and organs and is not independent) therefore the Atman becomes free by realising the Brahman (who is unconditioned or without limiting adjuncts) through meditation (on the Supreme) with the help of His limiting adjuncts. Thus the Upanishad clarifies the standpoint of unity of the (individual) enjoyer and the (supreme) Self.<ref name=":1" />
  
−
===Vedanta===
+
The Puranas also reinforce the concept of [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] as distinct from the Brahman due to its attributes of Nature and the way to dissociate from them. According to Vishnudharmottara Purana, the individual Atman is imagined through ignorance. When that is dissipated the difference between the individual Atma and supreme Brahman vanishes to be sure. Visnupurana (6.7.96) also points to Avidya or ignorance that creates a difference - which (really)  does not exist - between the Self and Brahman.  
−
The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism.
 
  
−
====Advaita Vedanta====
+
It may be pointed out that there exist different perspectives of various schools of Vedanta on Self and Brahman.  
−
{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}
 
−
{{Advaita}}
 
−
[[Advaita Vedanta]] espouses [[nondualism]]. ''Brahman'' is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name=acdas>AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name=jeffreybrodd/><ref name=barbarasca/><ref name=rdalal>Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40"/> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org"/> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name=acdas/> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.
 
  
−
The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>
+
Bhagavadgita clearly ascertains the Amshatva (अंशत्वम्। being a part, a limb, a portion ) of Atma  of the Supreme Self.<blockquote>ममैवांशो जीवलोके जीवभूतः सनातनः। मनःषष्ठानीन्द्रियाणि प्रकृतिस्थानि कर्षति।।15.7।। (Bhag. Gita. 15.7)</blockquote>Meaning : It is verily a part of Mine which, becoming the eternal individual atma in the region of living beings, attracts (to itself) the senses (and the organs) of which the mind is the sixth, and which abide in Nature.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda's English Translation of Srimad Bhagavadgita along with Sri Sankaracharya's Sanskrit Commentary. (Pages 621-622)</ref>
  
−
In [[Advaita Vedanta]], nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name=acdas/><ref name=williamw/> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>
+
That individual self, whose nature has been described thus, though an everlasting part of Myself, becomes the 'bound individual self' in the world of living beings. Covered by ignorance in the form of a beginningless Karma, It attracts to Itself the five senses and the mind, which are located in the bodies of devatas, men etc., and which are particular transformations of Prakrti. Some parts of Myself (i.e., the selves), becoming free from ignorance (Avidya) in the aforesaid manner, remain in their own intrinsic nature.<ref>Swami Adidevananda's Translation of Srimad Bhagavadgita along with Sri Ramanujacharya's Commentary. ([https://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/srimad?language=dv&field_chapter_value=15&field_nsutra_value=7&scram=1&etradi=1&etadi=1&choose=1 See Gitasupersite])</ref>
  
−
Example verses from [[Bhagavad-Gita]] include:
+
== Parabrahman ==
−
{{Quote|
+
Many texts mention the terms Parabrahman, Paramatma, Parashakti, Purushottama etc in denoting the entity who is all-pervading, all-knowing and all-blissful.  
−
<poem>
 
−
The [[Yajna|offering]] is Brahman; the oblation is Brahman;
 
−
offered by Brahman into the fire of Brahman.
 
−
Brahman will be attained by him,
 
−
who always sees Brahman in action. – Hymn 4.24<ref>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, page 224</ref><ref>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, page 83</ref>
 
  
−
He who finds his happiness within,
+
According to the Vaishnava vedantins, Purushottama denoting exemplary characteristics represents the Parabrahman. Jiva in the eternal state (Atman) maintaining the distinctness from Parabrahman, serves Him in Vaikuntha, after attaining the Sat-Chit-Ananda (which are again the characteristics of Purushottama). Jivas are in Unity with the Parabrahma in quality though different in quantity and they remain so even in the state of Moksha.
−
His delight within,
 
−
And his light within,
 
−
This yogin attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman. – Hymn 5.24<ref>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, page 266</ref>
 
−
</poem>
 
−
|Bhagavad Gita|}}
 
  
−
====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====
+
Advaita concept is that Jiva (bound with Upadhi, in conditional state) experiences distinctness from the eternal Parabraman due to Avidya. IT, that nameless, formless supreme entity called Parabrahman is the goal of a sadhaka engaged in the practice of Paravidya, (the Brahmavidya) knowing which is the Supreme Wisdom (Jnana) achieved through the paths laid down in the various texts, discussed through ages in the Upanishads and Brahmasutras. Here the Atman conditioned by the Upadhi is the same as Brahman or Parabrahman who is attributeless.<ref name=":0222" />
−
The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
 
  
−
====Dvaita Vedanta====
+
Kaivalyopanishad summarizes the nature of Brahman as follows
−
{{Vaishnavism}}
+
: मय्येव सकलं जातं मयि सर्वं प्रतिष्ठितम् । मयि सर्वं लयं याति तद्ब्रह्माद्वयमस्म्यहम् ॥ १९ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 19)
−
Brahman of [[Dvaita]] is a concept similar to God in major world religions.<ref name=mmyers/> Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.<ref name=mmyers/>
+
In me alone is everything born, in me does everything rest and in me is everything dissolved. I am that Brahman, advayam or secondless.<blockquote>न पुण्यपापे मम नास्ति नाशो न जन्म देहेन्द्रियबुद्धिरस्ति । न भूमिरापो न च वह्निरस्ति न चानिलो मेऽस्ति न चाम्बरं च ॥ २३ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 23)</blockquote><blockquote>एवं विदित्वा परमात्मरूपं गुहाशयं निष्कलमद्वितीयम् । समस्तसाक्षिं सदसद्विहीनं प्रयाति शुद्धं परमात्मरूपम् ॥ २४ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 24)<ref>Kaivalya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Complete])</ref></blockquote>For Me there is neither earth, nor water, nor fire, nor air, nor ether. Thus realising the Paramatman, who lies in the cavity of the heart, who is without parts, and without a second, the Witness of all, beyond both existence and non-existence - one attains the Pure Paramatman Itself.<ref>The Kaivalya Upanishad Translated by Swami Madhavananda. Kolkata : Advaita Ashram</ref>
  
−
Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
+
== Brahman Vs God ==
 +
Brahman is often translated and equated to the term "God", but this translation of the Samskrit term is grossly insufficient and most imprecise.
  
−
#Jîva-Îshvara-bheda&nbsp;— difference between the soul and Vishnu
+
In any abrahmic faith, the Kingdom of God is a localised place, one cannot invoke God in the visible world. Brahman in Sanatana Dharma can be invoked and experienced in the visible world. The Kingdom of God is a destination, which cannot be attained by a sinner, left with only once choice, in one's life which is belief in One God without any diversity. If he cannot attain the Kingdom of God, he is eternally condemned, perpetually tormented for ever. All actions in Abrahmic faiths are seen as mundane, without any divinity involved. For a sanatana dharmi, life's activities are associated with divinity. Life itself is a yajna, for example, cooking involves worship of Agni, farming involves worship of the air, every being is considered divine (snakes, ants). Whatever dravya is available in his vicinity, is considered to be an offering in this yajna, thus there is clear accessibility to divinity, unlike in the abrahmic faiths where sadhya is not clearly defined. Abrahmic faiths involve system centric believers and not sadhana centric seekers.
−
#Jada-Îshvara-bheda&nbsp;— difference between the insentient and Vishnu
 
−
#Mitha-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two souls
 
−
#Jada-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between insentient and the soul
 
−
#Mitha-jada-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two insentients
 
  
−
====Achintya Bheda Abheda====
+
9.27 BG
−
The [[Acintya Bheda Abheda]] philosophy is similar to [[Dvaitadvaita]] (differential [[monism]]). In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called [[jnana]]) of Absolute Truth, He is realized as impersonal Brahman, then as personal Brahman having eternal [[Vaikunta|Vaikuntha]] abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as [[Paramatma]] (by process of [[yoga]]-[[meditation]] on Supersoul, Vishnu-God in heart)&nbsp;– Vishnu ([[Narayana]], also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Vishnulokas (Vaikunthalokas), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by [[bhakti]]) as [[Bhagavan]], Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal, impersonal, or both).{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
 
  
−
===Vaishnavism===
+
For a Sanatana dharmi, in his avidya state, papa is conditional and circumstantial, hence there is no condemnation or eternal hell. The state of perfection may be delayed but never denied. Creation is a linear aspect unlike in Sanatana Dharma where it is cyclical and eternal (karma siddhanta and punarjanma).
−
{{Main|Vaishnavism}}
 
−
All [[Vaishnava]] schools are [[panentheistic]] and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an intermediate step of self-realization, but not [[Mukti]], or final liberation of complete God-realization through [[Bhakti Yoga]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Vishnu/Krishna; the universe and all other manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
 
−
 
 
−
===Bhakti movement===
 
−
{{main|Bhakti movement}}
 
−
 
 
−
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman – ''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna''.<ref name=karen21>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 21</ref> ''Nirguna'' Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.<ref name=jeaneanefxxvii>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxvii-xxxiv</ref> ''Saguna'' Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.<ref name=jeaneanefxxvii/> The two had parallels in the ancient panthestic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the [[Bhagavad Gita]].<ref name=karen21/><ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 207-211</ref> It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from ''Nirguni'' knowledge-focus and other from ''Saguni'' love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.<ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna/> ''Nirguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Jnana-shrayi'', or had roots in knowledge.<ref name=karen21/> ''Saguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Prema-shrayi'', or with roots in love.<ref name=karen21/> In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.<ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna/>
 
−
 
 
−
Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement [[theosophy]], underwent more profound development with the ideas of [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism, particularly those of [[Adi Shankara]]'s Advaita Vedanta, [[Ramanuja]]'s Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and [[Madhvacharya]]'s Dvaita Vedanta.<ref name=jeaneanefxxvii/> Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were ''Sandilya Bhakti Sutra'' – a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and ''Narada Bhakti Sutra'' – a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.<ref>Jessica Frazier and Gavin Flood (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 113-115</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name=davidlorenzenns/> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name=davidlorenzenns>David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2</ref> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name=karen21/>
 
−
 
 
−
==Buddhist understanding of Brahman==
 
−
 
 
−
Buddhism rejects the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman and Atman (soul, permanent self, essence).{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Zen Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2005), p. 30: "''Upanisadic'' thought is anything but consistent; nevertheless, there is a common focus on the acceptance of a totally transcendent Absolute, a trend which arose in the ''Vedic'' period. This indescribable Absolute is called Brahman [...] The true Self and Brahman are one and the same. Known as the Brahman-Atman synthesis, this theory, which is central to ''Upanisadic'' thought, is the cornerstone of Indian philosophy. The Brahman-Atman synthesis, which posits the theory of a permanent, unchanging self, was anathema to Buddhists, and it was as a reaction to the synthesis that Buddhism first drew breath. Merv Fowler p. 47: "For the ''Upanisadic'' sages, the real is the Self, is Atman, is Brahman. [...] To the Buddhist, however, any talk of an ''Atman'' or permanent, unchanging Self, the very kernel of ''Upanisadic'' thought, is anathema, a false notion of manifest proportion."}} According to Damien Keown, "the Buddha said he could find no evidence for the existence of either the personal soul (''atman'') or its cosmic counterpart (''brahman'')".<ref>Damien Keown, ''Buddhism'' (NY: Sterling, 2009), p. 70</ref> The metaphysics of Buddhism rejects Brahman (ultimate being), Brahman-like essence, soul and anything metaphysically equivalent through its [[Anatta]] doctrine.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Webster|title=The Philosophy of Desire in the Buddhist Pali Canon|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KqxI7YRUSegC|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-01057-0|pages=194–195, 93, 147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Richard Francis Gombrich|author2=Cristina Anna Scherrer-Schaub|title=Buddhist Studies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U7_Rea05eAMC |year=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3248-0|pages=192–193}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer|author2=Wade Clark Roof|title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |pages=272–273}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
According to Merv Fowler, some forms of Buddhism have incorporated concepts that resemble that of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34: "It was inevitable that the non-theistic philosophy of orthodox Buddhism should court the older Hindu practices and, in particular, infuse into its philosophy the belief in a totally transcendent Absolute of the nature of Brahman."}} As an example, Fowler cites the early [[Sarvastivada]] school of Buddhism, which "had come to accept a very pantheistic religious philosophy, and are important because of the impetus they gave to the development of Mahayana Buddhism".<ref>Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34</ref> According to William Theodore De Bary, in the doctrines of the [[Yogacara]] school of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], "the Body of Essence, the Ultimate Buddha, who pervaded and underlay the whole universe [...] was in fact the World Soul, the Brahman of the Upanishads, in a new form".<ref>William Theodore De Bary, cited in Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 98</ref> According to Fowler, some scholars have identified the Buddhist ''[[nirvana]]'', conceived of as the Ultimate Reality, with the Hindu Brahman/atman; Fowler claims that this view "has gained little support in Buddhist circles."<ref>Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 81</ref> Fowler asserts  that the authors of a number of Mahayana texts took pains to differentiate their ideas from the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 82: "The original writers of these Mahayana texts were not at all pleased that their writings were seen to contain the Brahman of the ''Upanisads'' in a new form. The authors of the ''Lankavatara''  strenuously denied that the womb of Tathagatahood, [...] was in any way equatable with the 'eternal self', the Brahmanical ''atman'' of ''Upanisadic'' thought. Similarly, the claim in the ''Nirvana Sutra'' that the Buddha regarded Buddhahood as a 'great atman' caused the Yogacarins considerable distress."}}
 
−
 
 
−
===Brahma as a surrogate for Brahman in Buddhist texts===
 
−
The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older in the Vedic literature, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and icon with form and attributes (saguna version) of the impersonal, nirguna (without attributes), formless universal principle called Brahman.<ref name=brucesullivan>Bruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816763, pages 82-83</ref> In the Hindu texts, one of the earliest mention of deity Brahma along with [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]] is in the fifth ''Prapathaka'' (lesson) of the [[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]], probably composed in late 1st millennium BCE, after the rise of Buddhism.<ref name=hume51>{{citation|first=Robert Ernest|last=Hume|title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n443/mode/2up|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|pages=422–424}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=KN Jayatilleke|title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zcs41sp8ON4C |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0619-1 |pages=68, 374}}, Quote: "We may conclude from the above that the rise of Buddhism is not far removed in time from, though it is prior to, the Maitri Upanishad".</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215-219</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The early Buddhists attacked the concept of Brahma, states Gananath Obeyesekere, and thereby [[polemic]]ally attacked the Vedic and Upanishadic concept of gender neutral, abstract metaphysical Brahman.<ref name="Obeyesekere2006p179"/> This critique of Brahma in early Buddhist texts aim at ridiculing the [[Vedas]], but the same texts simultaneously call ''metta'' (loving-kindness, compassion) as the state of union with Brahma. The early Buddhist approach to Brahma was to reject any creator aspect, while retaining the value system in the Vedic [[Brahmavihara]] concepts, in the Buddhist value system.<ref name="Obeyesekere2006p179">{{cite book|author=Gananath Obeyesekere|title=Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IEK4Qgm7Z0kC |year=2006|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2609-0 |pages=177–179 }}</ref> According to Martin Wiltshire, the term "Brahma loka" in the Buddhist canon, instead of "Svarga loka", is likely a Buddhist attempt to choose and emphasize the "truth power" and knowledge focus of the Brahman concept in the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin G. Wiltshire|title=Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WXmmkYQf4RwC |year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-009896-9 |pages=248–249, 253–255}}</ref> Simultaneously, by reformulating Brahman as Brahma and relegating it within its Devas and [[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|Samsara]] theories, early Buddhism rejected the Atman-Brahman premise of the Vedas to present of its own ''Dhamma'' doctrines ([[anicca]], [[dukkha]] and [[anatta]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin G. Wiltshire|title=Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WXmmkYQf4RwC |year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-009896-9 |pages= 256–265}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==Brahman in Sikhism==
 
−
{{multiple image
 
−
| direction = horizontal
 
−
| width1 = 130
 
−
| width2 = 90
 
−
| footer = [[Ik Onkar]] (left) is part of the [[Mul Mantar]] in Sikhism, where it means "Onkar [God, Reality] is one".<ref name=eleanor>Eleanor Nesbitt (2005), Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192806017, Chapter 4</ref> The Onkar of Sikhism is related to Om – also called ''Omkāra''<ref>Jean Holm and John Bowker, Worship, Bloomsbury, ISBN , page 67</ref> – in Hinduism.<ref name=eleanor/><ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 500</ref> The ancient texts of Hinduism state Om to be a symbolism for the Highest Reality, Brahman.<ref>Rangaswami Sudhakshina (2012), Roots of Vendanta, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143064459, page 405</ref><ref>David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195156690, page 54</ref>
 
−
| image1 = Ek_onkar.png
 
−
| image2 = Om devanagari.PNG
 
−
}}
 
−
The metaphysical concept of Brahman, particularly as ''nirguni Brahman'' – attributeless, formless, eternal Highest Reality – is at the foundation of [[Sikhism]].<ref name=sskohli39>SS Kohli (1993), The Sikh and Sikhism, Atlantic, ISBN 81-71563368, page 39</ref> This belief is observed through ''nirguni Bhakti'' by the Sikhs.<ref>Hardip Syan (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199699308, page 178</ref><ref>A Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415595971, page 188-190</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
In Gauri, which is part of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], Brahman is declared as "One without a second", in Sri Rag "everything is born of Him, and is finally absorbed in Him", in Var Asa "whatever we see or hear is the manifestation of Brahman".<ref>SS Kohli (1993), The Sikh and Sikhism, Atlantic, ISBN 81-71563368, page 38</ref> Nesbitt states that the first two words, ''Ik Onkar'', in the twelve-word Mul Mantar at the opening of the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib, has been translated in three different ways by scholars: "There is one god", "This being is one", and as "One reality is".<ref name=eleanor/>
 
−
 
 
−
Similar emphasis on "One without a second" for metaphysical concept of Brahman, is found in ancient texts of Hinduism, such as the Chandogya Upanishad's chapter 6.2.<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, pages 93-94</ref><ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 156-157, 162-163</ref> The ideas about God and Highest Reality in Sikhism share themes found in the ''Saguna'' and ''Nirguna'' concepts of Brahman in Hinduism.<ref name=sskohli39/><ref>N Mandair (2009), Postcolonial Philosophy of Religion (Editor: Purushottama Bilimoria, Andrew B. Irvine), Springer, ISBN 978-9400791770, page 145-146</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The concept of Ultimate Reality (Brahman) is also referred in Sikhism as ''Nam'', ''Sat-naam'' or ''Naam'', and ''Ik Oankar'' like Hindu [[Om]] symbolizes this Reality.<ref>William Owen Cole and Piara Singh Sambhi (1998), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723134, pages 70-71</ref><ref>HS Singha (2009), Sikh Studies, Vol. 7, Hemkunt Press, ISBN 978-8170102458, page 47</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==Brahman in Jainism==
 
−
Scholars contest whether the concept of Brahman is rejected or accepted in Jainism. The concept of a theistic God is rejected by Jainism, but ''Jiva'' or "Atman (soul) exists" is held to be a metaphysical truth and central to its theory of rebirths and [[Kevala Jnana]].<ref>Ray Billington (1997), Understanding Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415129657, page 46</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Bissett states that Jainism accepts the "material world" and "Atman", but rejects Brahman – the metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality and Cosmic Principles found in the ancient texts of Hinduism.<ref>James Bissett, Cultural and Religious Heritage of India, Volume 2: Jainism (Editors: Sharma and Sharma), Mittal, ISBN 81-70999553, page 81</ref> Goswami, in contrast, states that the literature of Jainism has an undercurrent of monist theme, where the self who gains the knowledge of Brahman (Highest Reality, Supreme Knowledge) is identical to Brahman itself.<ref>C Caillat and N Balbir (2008), Jaina Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832473, page ix-x</ref> Jaini states that Jainism neither accepts nor rejects the premise of Ultimate Reality (Brahman), instead Jain ontology adopts a many sided doctrine called ''[[Anekantavada]]''. This doctrine holds that "reality is irreducibly complex" and no human view or description can represent the Absolute Truth.<ref name=pjaini>P Jaini (1998), The Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1578-5, pages 90-93</ref><ref>J Koller (2004), "Why is Anekāntavāda important?", (Editor: Tara Sethia, Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jainism), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-2036-3, pages 400-407</ref> Those who have understood and realized the Absolute Truth are the liberated ones and the Supreme Souls, with [[Kevala Jnana]].<ref name=pjaini/>
 
−
 
 
−
==Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas==
 
−
[[Brahma]] is distinct from Brahman.<ref name="BondKunin2003p231"/> Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name=pandeyp40>{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |pages=40 }}</ref> who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.<ref name="Doniger1999p437"/> In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, thereafter a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again.<ref name=pandeyp40/><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |pages=330 }}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality,<ref name="BondKunin2003p231">{{cite book|author1=Helen K. Bond |author2=Seth D. Kunin|author3=Francesca Murphy |title=Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HokZ5UW5fZsC&pg=PA231 |year=2003|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9914-7 |pages=231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=William Sweet |title=Approaches to Metaphysics |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cyCme74cZ1IC |year=2006|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2182-4|pages=145–147 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=H. James Birx |title=Encyclopedia of Anthropology |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8m_vBQAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6536-0 |pages=1279 }}</ref> that, states Doniger, is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence.<ref name="Doniger1999p437"/> It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends.<ref name="Doniger1999p437"/> It is a gender neutral abstract concept.<ref name="Doniger1999p437">{{cite book|author=Wendy Denier|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |pages=437 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |year=1998|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10260-4 |pages=256 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush |author2=Catherine Robinson |author3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |pages=114–115 }}</ref> The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads;<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Craig|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lS2cSqwMtf8C |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-18707-7 |pages=1–4 }}</ref> while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Julius Lipner |title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC |year=1994|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05181-1 |pages=43–44 }}</ref> In the Puranic and the Epics literature, deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently. Some texts suggest that god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism),<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |pages=147 }}</ref> others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism),<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |pages=125 }}</ref> yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism),<ref name=kinsley137>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=137 }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name=kinsley137/><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205-206 }}</ref> Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna''{{refn|group=note|representation with face and attributes)<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref>}} Brahman is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> is Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=171 }}</ref> or is Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=136 }}</ref> respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=William K. Mahony |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |pages=13–14, 187 }}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
[[Brahmin]] is a [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] in [[Hinduism]] specialising in theory as priests, preservers and transmitters of sacred literature across generations.<ref>{{cite book | last=Doniger | first=Wendy | title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions| publisher=Merriam-Webster | location=Springfield, MA, USA | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 | page=186}}</ref><ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), Brahmin, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 125</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The [[Brahmana]]s are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the [[Vedas]]. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref><ref>[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, pages 67-69</ref> They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the [[Hindu texts|Hindu]] ''[[śruti]]'' literature.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brahmana "Brahmana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==See also==
 
−
{{Wikiquote}}
 
−
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
 
−
*[[Acintya]]
 
−
*[[Om|Aum]]
 
−
*[[Bardo]]
 
−
*[[Ginnungagap]]
 
−
*[[Jiva]]
 
−
*[[Mysticism]]
 
−
*[[Pure land]]
 
−
*[[Universal mind]]
 
−
*[[The All]]
 
−
*[[Yoga]]
 
−
{{div col end}}
 
−
 
 
−
==Notes==
 
−
{{reflist|group=note|33em}}
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
{{Reflist|33em}}
+
<references group="note" />
−
 
+
<references />
−
===Bibliography===
+
[[Category:Vedanta]]
−
{{refbegin}}
+
[[Category:Sampradayas]]
−
* {{cite book |first=Jeaneane D. |last= Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C| year=2002| publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-93-6|ref=harv}}
 
−
* {{cite book |first=Klaus K. |last= Klostermaier |title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC |year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |chapter=Chapter 12}}
 
−
* {{Cite book | last =Michaels | first =Axel | year =2004 | title =Hinduism. Past and present | place =Princeton, New Jersey | publisher =Princeton University Press}}
 
−
* {{Citation | last =Potter | first =Karl H. | year =2008 | title =The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}}
 
−
* {{Citation | last =Puligandla | first =Ramakrishna | year =1997 | title =Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy | place =New Delhi | publisher =D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.}}
 
−
* {{Citation | last =Raju | first =P.T. | year =1992 | title =The Philosophical Traditions of India | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}}
 
−
* {{Citation | last =Sinari | first =Ramakant | year =2000 | title =Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), "History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta" | place =Delhi | publisher =Centre for Studies in Civilizations}}
 
−
{{refend}}
 
−
 
 
−
==External links==
 
−
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1396951 The Concept of Brahman in Hindu Philosophy], Haridas Chaudhuri (1954), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 4, No. 1, pages 47–66
 
−
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1195422 The Idea of God in Hinduism], A. S. Woodburne (1925), The Journal of Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 52–66
 
−
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/41694938 The Western View of Hinduism: An Age-old Mistake] (Brahman), JM De Mora (1997), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 78, No. 1/4, pages 1–12
 
−
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Compares Brahman with concepts of God found in other religions)
 
−
*[http://www.hinduwebsite.com/brahmanmain.asp Detailed essays on Brahman] at Hinduwebsite.com
 
−
 
 
−
{{Hindudharma}}
 
−
{{Theology}}
 
−
{{Philosophy topics}}
 
−
{{Indian Philosophy}}
 
−
{{Vaishnava philosophy}}
 
−
{{Names of God}}
 
−
 
 
−
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
 
−
[[Category:Conceptions of God]]
 
−
[[Category:Names of God in Hinduism]]
 

Latest revision as of 11:40, 25 September 2022

Brahman (Samskrit : ब्रह्मन्) in general signifies the Absolute, Eternal, Changeless, Infinite element without attributes, qualities beyond name and form, yet all encompassing the universe called variously as Brahman, Purusha, Satyam, Atman.

While the samskrit word Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) used in this article is a pratipadika (a stem), this entity is refers to the Brahma padarth discussed in the various relevant texts. The first case ending of Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is Brahma (ब्रह्मा) which should not be confused with the deity Brahma who is the creator among the trimurthi devatas, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.

Talk on Energy in the Vedas

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

An abstract but highly discussed word, Brahman, is the core of the Vedanta and Upanishad texts, a concept fundamental and unique to Sanatana Dharma. No other philosophy in the world, in the history of thought, has evolved and discussed the concept of Brahman; it is the most ancient mystery of the worlds. Brahman is not equal to "God" of the abrahmic faiths.

All Bharatiya sampradayas are unified in agreeing to the existence of Brahman, which is regarded as attributeless supreme entity, Satya by the Advaita vedantin. On the other hand, the Vaishnava vedantin also accepts Brahman as One in character, the reality of eternal existence. They distinguish consciously between Brahman and Supreme Brahman (Shri Narayana or Shri Krishna or Shri Rama).

variations amongst them are seen only with respect to the path followed to understand and experience Brahman.

वेदान्तमते ‘वस्तु सच्चिदानन्दाद्वयं ब्रह्म तथा अज्ञानादिसकलजडसमूहोऽवस्तु ।’ ‘ब्रह्मैव नित्यं वस्तु तदन्यदखिलमनित्यम् ।’[1]
vedāntamate ‘vastu saccidānandādvayaṁ brahma tathā ajñānādisakalajaḍasamūho'vastu ।’ ‘brahmaiva nityaṁ vastu tadanyadakhilamanityam ।

It should also be noted that Supreme Brahman and ‘Brahman is supreme’ mean two different things. An observation from the position of physical state, Brahman is supreme. But from the position of Atma and Paramatma or Brahman and Parabrahman, the word Brahman and Supreme Brahman denote superiority in position despite qualitative oneness. Thus the ‘Supreme Brahman’ denotes a qualitative superiority of the Brahman.

व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology

Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is derived from the dhatus बृहँ (brh) and बृहिँ (Brhi) in the meaning of वृद्धौ (vrddhi)[1] - बृंहति वर्द्धते निरतिशयमहत्त्व-लक्षणवृद्धिमान् भवतीत्यर्थः - to expand, grow, enlarge, one which is beyond comparison. It is used to explain the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme force which is attributeless.

Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of a deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self.

It is distinct from:

  • A Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्) which is the prose explanation of the mantras, one of the four divisions of the Vedic texts.
  • A Brahmana (ब्राह्मणः) (masculine) is one who belongs to the Brahmana varna (first of the four varnas); in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as Brahmin (ब्राह्मणः).
  • Brahma (ब्रह्मा) is a deity who has the role of the creator among the Trimurtis, having a lifetime measured in kalpas (see Kala)
  • Ishvara (ईश्वरः), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and a personal Brahman.

Evolution of Concept of Brahman

The Upanishads which develop ideas that are in germ in the Veda Samhitas are the only source of definite knowledge, to answer the questions which ever baffled the human mind. Questions that man has been trying to answer from ages include

  • whether our personality survives death?
  • where does man go after death?
  • is there existence of life in a world called devalokas/brahmaloka?
  • does he ever return to this world?
  • what is the final goal of life?
  • what is nature of the final goal of the world?
  • what is the nature and definition of the supreme entity that man believes in?
  • nature of Atman (individual Jivatma) and its relationship with other Jagat (world) and with Supreme entity (Brahman)?
  • what is the ultimate truth of existence?
  • how did the universe originate?

Obviously no other knowledge source has ever attempted to answer such questions and it is only Upanishads and other Vedanta texts that give us the last word on all such matters apart from practicing what is given in them. Through no other means is it possible for us to get convincing answers to our queries regarding them. Not being the work of man (Apaurusheya) Upanishads are free from the usual shortcomings of all human endeavor such as error, doubt, and deception. It is open to us all to verify their statements by actual experience along the lines prescribed by them. The truths inculcated in them are not mere theories, but facts, and as such are invulnerable.[2]

Questions

Any doctrine or siddhanta about Brahman involves theories explaining certain common groups of questions

  • emergence, sustenance and dissolution of the world (ontology)
  • what is real and the principles applying to Jagat, Atman, Brahman etc (metaphysics)
  • nature of things - sentient and insentient things, Brahman and others.
  • study of means of understanding knowledge, example Pramanas (epistemology)
  • relationship between individual Jivatmas, the inanimate matter (Jagat), Supreme Being (Ishvara)
  • modes of attaining the final goal Moksha (soteriology)
  • essence and value attributed to Brahman and other aspects of Vedanta (axiology)

Shvetasvatara Upanishad in the very first mantra puts forth these questions as deliberated by the Brahmavadins

ॐ ब्रह्मवादिनो वदन्ति । किं कारणं ब्रह्म कुतः स्म जाता जीवाम केन क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा । अधिष्ठिताः केन सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे ब्रह्मविदो व्यवस्थाम् ॥ १ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1) oṁ brahmavādino vadanti । kiṁ kāraṇaṁ brahma kutaḥ sma jātā jīvāma kena kva ca sampratiṣṭhā । adhiṣṭhitāḥ kena sukhetareṣu vartāmahe brahmavido vyavasthām ॥ 1 ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1)

Summary : People accustomed to deliberate on Brahman discuss : What is the nature of Brahman, the Source (किं कारणं ब्रह्म)? From what have been born (कुतः स्म जाता)? By what do we live (जीवाम केन)? And where do we exist, rest, at the time of dissolution (क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा)? O Knowers of Brahman, regulated by whom (अधिष्ठिताः केन) do we conform to the system regarding happiness and its opposite namely sorrows (सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे)?

In this way the question "What is the cause" (किं कारणं । kiṁ kāraṇaṁ) pertains to the primordial cause of the regulation of creation, continuance and dissolution.[3]

Mundakopanishad also raises the question of Knowledge and seeks answers to understand the nature of vidya

कस्मिन्नु भगवो विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवतीति ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)[4] kasminnu bhagavo vijñāte sarvamidaṁ vijñātaṁ bhavatīti ॥ 3 ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)

Meaning : What is that by knowing which everything in this universe is known?

Answers

The answer to the above natural quests are found in the conception of a Supreme entity or Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe, from whom, indeed, beings are born, through whom they live and unto whom they return and merge in. The knower of Brahman attains the highest.

ब्रह्मलक्षणम् ॥ Defining Brahman

The characteristics of Brahman are comprehensively put forth in the Taittriya Upanishad in the Brahmanandavalli as follows 

सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । satyaṁ jñānamanantaṁ brahma । Brahman is Truth, Knowledge, Infinite (Tait. Upan. 2.1.1)[5]

In defining the Brahman, the different vedanta systems critically discuss whether Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma (सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म) denotes the very svarupa or Brahman using the grammatical rule of samanadhikaranya (सामानाधिकरण्यम्).

Advaitins hold that in the above Taittriryopanishad vakya, the terms convey an impartite and non-relational sense, because the sentence conveys the idea of one entity (a homogenous being) only when all its constituent terms denote one and the same thing (devoid of all difference), just as in "He is that Devadatta".

Brahman is again defined simply as having सच्चिदानन्दलक्षणम् as defined in Nrsimha Uttaratapaniya Upanishad and reiterated in Panchadashi composed by Vidyaranyaswami. 

सच्चिदानन्दमात्रः स स्वराड् भवति । saccidānandamātraḥ sa svarāḍ bhavati । He is effulgent with (the qualities of) Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss (Nrsim. Uttar. Upan.7)[6]

सच्चित्सुखात्मकं ब्रह्म ...। saccitsukhātmakaṁ brahma ...। The nature of Brahman is existence, consciousness, and bliss (Panchadasi 13.62)[7][8]

ब्रह्मतत्वम् ॥ Nature of Brahman

Discussion on Brahmatattva or nature of Brahman is extensive and ageless with numerous Upanishad and Vedanta bhashyas on the subject explaining different characteristics. Putting together the Upanishadic and Brahmasutra explanations, Brahman is said to have the following features

  • All-perceiving (सर्वानुभूः)
  • Immortal (तदमृतँ)
  • Eternal (नित्यम्)
  • Formless (अरूपम्)
  • Undiminishing (अव्ययम्)
  • Hidden in every being (भूतेषु गूढः)
  • Constant (ध्रुवं)
  • Birthless (अजः)
  • Lacks vital force (अप्राणः)
  • Without mind (अमनाः)
  • Unattached (असङ्गम्)
  • Without beginning or end (अनाद्यनन्तं)
  • Unfathomable (अग्राह्यम्)
  • Cannot be inferred (अलक्षणं)
  • Unthinkable (अचिन्त्यम्)
  • Indescribable by words (अव्यपदेश्यम्)
  • Distinct from Buddhi (महतः परं)
  • Pure Intelligence (प्रज्ञानघन)
  • Pure Consciousness (चैतन्यमात्रम्)

मूर्तामूर्तस्थितिः ॥ Two States of Brahman

Brhdaranyanka Upanishad is one of the earliest texts mentioning the existence of the two states of Brahman

द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे । मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च, मर्त्यं चामृतं च । स्थितं च यच्च । सच्च त्यं च ॥ बृह. २,३.१ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.1)[9]

Indeed, there are two forms of Brahman, gross (मूर्तं) and subtle (अमूर्तं) (with form and formless), mortal and immortal (changing and unchanging), finite and infinite, defined and undefined (existent and beyond (existence)).[10]

Brahman or the Supreme Self has but two forms, through the superimposition of which, by ignorance, the formless Supreme Brahman is defined or made conceivable. Which are those two forms? The gross and subtle. The other phases of the gross and subtle are included in them; so they are counted as two only. Here, the gross or Defined (Saguna), having particular characteristics that distinguish it from others and Undefined, the opposite of that, which can only be distantly referred to, as something unknown. The subtle is immortal not subject to destruction. This 'being' is the perfection of the two subtle elements (air and ether), because they emanate from the undifferentiated in order to form the subtle body of Hiranyagarbha (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.2-3).

According to Advaita siddhanta, the Brahman that is (respectively) connected with the body and organs, which are the product of the five elements, is designated as gross and subtle, is mortal and immortal and includes the impressions created by those elements, is the omniscient, omnipotent, conditioned Brahman Saguna). It consists of actions, their factors and their results, and admitting of all kinds of association. That same Brahman, again, is devoid of all limiting adjuncts, the object of intuition, birthless, undecaying, immortal, fearless, and beyond the reach of even speech and mind, being above duality, and is described as 'Not this, not this.'[11]

We now proceed to discuss the conditioned and unconditioned Brahman in further sections in light of the different schools of thought of vedanta.

Brahman as in Different Sampradayas

Unity of Brahman

Unlike the abrahmic faith, which creates a no-diversity in the process of sadhana or in the perfection (salvation of the Abrahmic faith), in Sanatana Dharma sadhana and sadhaka are unique as they are in the ultimate perfect state. According to Advaitins, the mokhsa is becoming one with Brahman and the Vaishnavaites experience Brahman in the form of Narayana and achieving the Narayana in the Vaikuntha loka. Within the Vaishnava vedanta there is more diversity of perfection with one achieving Vaikuntha; some call it as Goloka, others as Ayodhya, some others as Krishna, Narasimha depending on the deity that they are worship in their sadhana state. Therefore for a Vaishnava sadhana and sadhya are non-different.

Thus, it appears as there are many deities but the character they experience is of the same essence of Brahman. As to the abrahmic faiths, they cannot comprehend the perfected stage manifesting in this diversity of forms.

One many note that the habits, jivana vidhana, daivatarchara of practitioners of Advaita and Vaishnava vedantins are same, they perform all the samskaras which are essentially the same with minor local flavors. A mature Sanatana dharmi does not "tolerate" but "celebrates" the differences of unequality and diversity.

Differences about Brahman

Everyone of the vedantic system-builders - Sri Shankara, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and others-has followed his own standpoint in his commentary of the Upanishads, bringing a mind illumined, directed by his own individual adhyatmik experience and interpreted all the passages to uphold his position and popularize the system of thought he expounded.[12] The relationship of Atman and Brahman is the primary basis of defining the various vedanta schools, for example, Advaita school is so named as it posits that Atman and Brahman are one and the same, while Dvaita school maintains that Atman and Brahman are distinctly two entities.

While fundamentally in agreement regarding the existence of Brahman various Vedantic schools differ as in following aspects

Key Differences of Brahman in Three Vedanta Sampradayas
Concept Advaita Dvaita Vishistadvaita
Concept of Brahman Nirguna (Impersonal) Saguna (Personal) Saguna (Personal)
Who is Brahman Attributeless without Name and Form Vishnu or Krishna is Supreme Deity Brahman or Purushottama
Real and Unreal Brahman is Real, Samsara is Unreal Universe and its components are Real with five-fold difference Both Brahman and Samsara are Real
Efficient cause of the Universe (effect) Cause and effect are one and the same Brahman Vishnu is the efficient cause of the Universe Vishnu is the efficient cause of the Universe
Relationship of Jivatma and Brahman Absolute Identity (Kevaladvaita) Absolute Distinction (Kevala Bheda) Two Separate entities where one controls the other but are in Unity (Visishitadvaita)
Origin of the Universe From Brahman through Maya Vishnu is the manifestor of the Universe Vishnu is the Creator
Realization Method Atma transcending Avidya Knowledge of Vishnu and Universe Bhakti leads to Brahman
Moksha Method Jnana that Jivatma and Paramatma are One Attainment of Vishnu through Vishnuprasada (grace) Attainment of Vishnu through Nityakainkarya

Advaita Vedanta (अद्वैतवेदान्तः) sampradaya totally dismisses the concept that Brahman, Atman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained by Sri Adi Shankaracharya and Advaita Bhashyas. Important postulates of Advaita include

  • Brahman is without attributes (Nirguna Brahman), and is Satyam (Real); all else is Mithya (unreal).
  • Atman (Jivatma) and Paramatma are the same without any difference.
  • The idea of difference between them arises from Avidya (ignorance, lack of yadartha jnana) and when Atma transcends Avidya, it brings about the realization of the All-ness and wholeness of the Atman as indicated by the vidya-sutra

    आत्मेत्येवोपासीतात्र ह्येते सर्व एकं भवन्ति । ātmetyevopāsītātra hyete sarva ekaṁ bhavanti । (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.7)[13]

  • The Universe springs from Brahman, just like hairs on a man's head; it is the work of Maya.
  • Cause and effect are one and the same (कार्यकारण-अभेदः) just like an aggregation of threads is seen in the form of a cloth.

As long as the Atma identifies itself with the Upadhis (vehicle of atma), it remains bound in Samsara, when it Knows Itself as Self, it becomes free from Samsara. For those who are not yet ready for this effort of Self Knowledge, ritual is not only desirable but also necessary. Those who reached the point where Atma only attracts them, Jnanam is enough and by Sadhana they achieve Brahman, the goal. However, a Jnani does not abstain from Karma or actions (similar as in Samkhya siddhanta), he best understands them and actively engages in them, being unattached to the results and not by the dictate of desire. Such a person is called Jivanmukta.

For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the conversation between Uddalaka and Shvetaketu. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cycle of birth and death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Buddhi only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)[14]

The Dvaita Vedanta (द्वैतवेदान्तः) sampradaya upholds the distinctness of Paramatma from Jivatma both in material world and in Moksha. It teaches that Vishnu is the Supreme Deity and formed the Universe out of Prkriti which is already existing. Here the concept of Supreme (Brahman) is seen in Vishnu, who is the efficient cause of the Universe. It follows the Samkhya darshana way of describing the evolution and that Jiva travels on a adhyatmik journey to attain the Paramatma. Jiva attains Moksha in which it remains in Bhoga (भोगः । enjoyment of eternal bliss) with the Paramatma. The Jiva reaches one or other of the four conditions

  1. Sarupya (सारूप्यम् । Same form as the Divine Form)
  2. Salokya (सालोक्यम् । Residence in the same loka as the Divine Form eg : Vaikuntha)
  3. Sannidhya (सान्निध्यम् । Being in proximity to the Divine Form)
  4. Sayujyam (सायुज्यम् । Union with the Divine Form).

However, this union is not to be considered as one of identity of nature. (Page 33 of Reference[10]).

The Vishistadvaita Vedanta (विशिष्टाद्वैतवेदान्तः) sampradaya upholds separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । dissolution) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman. Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.[10]

Atman as Amsha of Brahma

Shvetasvatara Upanishad is one of the important texts that explains the difference between the Jivatma (variously called as Atman closely translated as individual soul) and Brahman. The upanishad first shows the distinction between the Individual Self (Jivatma) and the Supreme Self (Brahman) due to the limiting adjuncts in the observable state (empirical) and then reveals Amrtattva (immortality) as a consequence of the realization of That (supreme self):[15]

संयुक्तमेतत्क्षरमक्षरं च व्यक्ताव्यक्तं भरते विश्वमीशः । अनीशश्चात्मा बध्यते भोक्तृभावाज्ज्ञात्वा देवं मुच्यते सर्वपाशैः ॥ ८ ॥ (Shvet. Upan. 1.7)[16]

Ishvara nourishes this universe consisting of effect and cause, the Vyaktam (व्यक्तम् । manifested) and Avyaktam (अव्यक्तम् । Unmanifested) which are respectively the Ksharam (क्षरम् । mutable, destructible) and Aksharam (अक्षरम् । immutable, indestructible) which are mutually associated (संयुक्तम्). The individual Atman, which is not independent, becomes bound due to its sense of being the Bhoktr (भोक्तृभावात् । enjoyer); realizing the effulgent Self (supreme), it becomes freed from all bondages.

Simply put the Upanishad expresses the difference between the Atman and Brahman due to the limiting adjuncts (Atman is possessed of the individual body and organs and is not independent) therefore the Atman becomes free by realising the Brahman (who is unconditioned or without limiting adjuncts) through meditation (on the Supreme) with the help of His limiting adjuncts. Thus the Upanishad clarifies the standpoint of unity of the (individual) enjoyer and the (supreme) Self.[15]

The Puranas also reinforce the concept of Atman as distinct from the Brahman due to its attributes of Nature and the way to dissociate from them. According to Vishnudharmottara Purana, the individual Atman is imagined through ignorance. When that is dissipated the difference between the individual Atma and supreme Brahman vanishes to be sure. Visnupurana (6.7.96) also points to Avidya or ignorance that creates a difference - which (really) does not exist - between the Self and Brahman.

It may be pointed out that there exist different perspectives of various schools of Vedanta on Self and Brahman.

Bhagavadgita clearly ascertains the Amshatva (अंशत्वम्। being a part, a limb, a portion ) of Atma of the Supreme Self.

ममैवांशो जीवलोके जीवभूतः सनातनः। मनःषष्ठानीन्द्रियाणि प्रकृतिस्थानि कर्षति।।15.7।। (Bhag. Gita. 15.7)

Meaning : It is verily a part of Mine which, becoming the eternal individual atma in the region of living beings, attracts (to itself) the senses (and the organs) of which the mind is the sixth, and which abide in Nature.[17]

That individual self, whose nature has been described thus, though an everlasting part of Myself, becomes the 'bound individual self' in the world of living beings. Covered by ignorance in the form of a beginningless Karma, It attracts to Itself the five senses and the mind, which are located in the bodies of devatas, men etc., and which are particular transformations of Prakrti. Some parts of Myself (i.e., the selves), becoming free from ignorance (Avidya) in the aforesaid manner, remain in their own intrinsic nature.[18]

Parabrahman

Many texts mention the terms Parabrahman, Paramatma, Parashakti, Purushottama etc in denoting the entity who is all-pervading, all-knowing and all-blissful.

According to the Vaishnava vedantins, Purushottama denoting exemplary characteristics represents the Parabrahman. Jiva in the eternal state (Atman) maintaining the distinctness from Parabrahman, serves Him in Vaikuntha, after attaining the Sat-Chit-Ananda (which are again the characteristics of Purushottama). Jivas are in Unity with the Parabrahma in quality though different in quantity and they remain so even in the state of Moksha.

Advaita concept is that Jiva (bound with Upadhi, in conditional state) experiences distinctness from the eternal Parabraman due to Avidya. IT, that nameless, formless supreme entity called Parabrahman is the goal of a sadhaka engaged in the practice of Paravidya, (the Brahmavidya) knowing which is the Supreme Wisdom (Jnana) achieved through the paths laid down in the various texts, discussed through ages in the Upanishads and Brahmasutras. Here the Atman conditioned by the Upadhi is the same as Brahman or Parabrahman who is attributeless.[10]

Kaivalyopanishad summarizes the nature of Brahman as follows

मय्येव सकलं जातं मयि सर्वं प्रतिष्ठितम् । मयि सर्वं लयं याति तद्ब्रह्माद्वयमस्म्यहम् ॥ १९ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 19)

In me alone is everything born, in me does everything rest and in me is everything dissolved. I am that Brahman, advayam or secondless.

न पुण्यपापे मम नास्ति नाशो न जन्म देहेन्द्रियबुद्धिरस्ति । न भूमिरापो न च वह्निरस्ति न चानिलो मेऽस्ति न चाम्बरं च ॥ २३ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 23)

एवं विदित्वा परमात्मरूपं गुहाशयं निष्कलमद्वितीयम् । समस्तसाक्षिं सदसद्विहीनं प्रयाति शुद्धं परमात्मरूपम् ॥ २४ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 24)[19]

For Me there is neither earth, nor water, nor fire, nor air, nor ether. Thus realising the Paramatman, who lies in the cavity of the heart, who is without parts, and without a second, the Witness of all, beyond both existence and non-existence - one attains the Pure Paramatman Itself.[20]

Brahman Vs God

Brahman is often translated and equated to the term "God", but this translation of the Samskrit term is grossly insufficient and most imprecise.

In any abrahmic faith, the Kingdom of God is a localised place, one cannot invoke God in the visible world. Brahman in Sanatana Dharma can be invoked and experienced in the visible world. The Kingdom of God is a destination, which cannot be attained by a sinner, left with only once choice, in one's life which is belief in One God without any diversity. If he cannot attain the Kingdom of God, he is eternally condemned, perpetually tormented for ever. All actions in Abrahmic faiths are seen as mundane, without any divinity involved. For a sanatana dharmi, life's activities are associated with divinity. Life itself is a yajna, for example, cooking involves worship of Agni, farming involves worship of the air, every being is considered divine (snakes, ants). Whatever dravya is available in his vicinity, is considered to be an offering in this yajna, thus there is clear accessibility to divinity, unlike in the abrahmic faiths where sadhya is not clearly defined. Abrahmic faiths involve system centric believers and not sadhana centric seekers.

9.27 BG

For a Sanatana dharmi, in his avidya state, papa is conditional and circumstantial, hence there is no condemnation or eternal hell. The state of perfection may be delayed but never denied. Creation is a linear aspect unlike in Sanatana Dharma where it is cyclical and eternal (karma siddhanta and punarjanma).

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Shabdakalpadruma (See ब्रह्म)
  2. ↑ Swami Madhavananda author of A Bird's-Eye View of the Upanishads (1958) The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 1 : The Early Phases (Prehistoric, Vedic and Upanishadic, Jaina and Buddhist). Calcutta : The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Pages 345-365)
  3. ↑ Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 45-46)
  4. ↑ Mundaka Upanishad (Complete)
  5. ↑ Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama (Page 286)
  6. ↑ Nrsimha Uttarataapaniya Upanishad (Complete)
  7. ↑ Panchadasi (Prakarana 13 )
  8. ↑ Swami Swahananda (1967) Panchadasi of Sri Vidyaranya Swami (English Translation) Madras : Sri Ramakrishna Math (Pages 521-522)
  9. ↑ Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Adhyaya 2)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College
  11. ↑ Swami Madhavananda (1950 Third Edition) The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentary of Sankaracharya. Almora : Advaita Ashrama (Page 329)
  12. ↑ Swami Ghanananda author of The Dawn of Indian Philosophy (1958) The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 1 : The Early Phases (Prehistoric, Vedic and Upanishadic, Jaina and Buddhist). Calcutta : The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Pages 333-344)
  13. ↑ Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Adhyaya 1)
  14. ↑ Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 75-78)
  16. ↑ Shvetasvatara Upanishad (Adhyaya 1)
  17. ↑ Swami Gambhirananda's English Translation of Srimad Bhagavadgita along with Sri Sankaracharya's Sanskrit Commentary. (Pages 621-622)
  18. ↑ Swami Adidevananda's Translation of Srimad Bhagavadgita along with Sri Ramanujacharya's Commentary. (See Gitasupersite)
  19. ↑ Kaivalya Upanishad (Complete)
  20. ↑ The Kaivalya Upanishad Translated by Swami Madhavananda. Kolkata : Advaita Ashram
Retrieved from ‘https://dharmawiki.org/index.php?title=Brahman_(ब्रह्मन्)&oldid=134397’