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Brahman (Samskrit : ब्रह्मन्) in general signifies the Absolute, Eternal, Changeless, Infinite element without attributes, qualities beyond name and form, yet all encompassing the universe called variously as Brahman, Purusha, Parabrahma, Satya.
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{{ToBeEdited}}
  
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IT, that nameless, formless supreme being is the goal of a sadhaka engaged in the practice of Paravidya, (the Brahmavidya) knowing which is the Supreme Wisdom (Jnana) achieved through the paths laid down in the various texts, discussed through ages in the Upanishads and Brahmasutras.<ref name=":0222" />
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Brahman (Samskrit : ब्रह्मन्) in general signifies the Absolute, Eternal, Changeless, Infinite element without attributes, qualities beyond name and form, yet all encompassing the universe called variously as Brahman, Purusha and Satya.
  
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While the samskrit word Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) used in this article is a pratipadika (a stem), this entity is referred to mostly as Brahma padarth or Parabrahma, Paramatma etc in the various texts.  The first case ending of Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is Brahma (ब्रह्मा) which should not be confused with the deity [[Brahma (ब्रह्मा)|Brahma]] who is the creator among the trimurthis (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva).  
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While the samskrit word Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) used in this article is a pratipadika (a stem), this entity is referred to mostly as Brahma padarth in the various texts.  The first case ending of Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is Brahma (ब्रह्मा) which should not be confused with the deity [[Brahma (ब्रह्मा)|Brahma]] who is the creator among the trimurthis (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva).  
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== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
 
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
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An abstract but highly discussed word, Brahman, is the core of the Vedanta and Upanishad texts, a concept fundamental and unique to Sanatana Dharma. No other philosophy in the world, in the history of thought, has evolved and discussed the concept of Brahman; it is the most ancient mystery of the worlds.   
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An abstract but highly discussed word, Brahman, is the core of the Vedanta and Upanishad texts, a concept fundamental and unique to Sanatana Dharma. No other philosophy in the world, in the history of thought, has evolved and discussed the concept of Brahman; it is the most ancient mystery of the worlds. Brahman is not equal to "God" of the abrahmic faiths.   
  
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All Bharatiya sampradayas are unified in agreeing to the existence in an attributeless supreme entity, while variations amongst them are seen only with respect to the path followed to understand and experience Brahman.  
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All Bharatiya sampradayas are unified in agreeing to the existence of Brahman, which is regarded as attributeless supreme entity, Satya by the Advaita vedantin. On the other hand, the Vaishnava vedantin also accepts Brahman as One in character, the reality of eternal existence. They distinguish consciously between Brahman and Supreme Brahman (Shri Narayana or Shri Krishna or Shri Rama). 
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variations amongst them are seen only with respect to the path followed to understand and experience Brahman.  
 
: वेदान्तमते ‘वस्तु सच्चिदानन्दाद्वयं ब्रह्म तथा अज्ञानादिसकलजडसमूहोऽवस्तु ।’ ‘ब्रह्मैव नित्यं वस्तु तदन्यदखिलमनित्यम् ।’<ref name=":0" />  
 
: वेदान्तमते ‘वस्तु सच्चिदानन्दाद्वयं ब्रह्म तथा अज्ञानादिसकलजडसमूहोऽवस्तु ।’ ‘ब्रह्मैव नित्यं वस्तु तदन्यदखिलमनित्यम् ।’<ref name=":0" />  
 
: vedāntamate ‘vastu saccidānandādvayaṁ brahma tathā ajñānādisakalajaḍasamūho'vastu ।’ ‘brahmaiva nityaṁ vastu tadanyadakhilamanityam ।  
 
: vedāntamate ‘vastu saccidānandādvayaṁ brahma tathā ajñānādisakalajaḍasamūho'vastu ।’ ‘brahmaiva nityaṁ vastu tadanyadakhilamanityam ।  
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It should also be noted that Supreme Brahman and ‘Brahman is supreme’ mean two different things. An observation from the position of physical state, Brahman is supreme. But from the position of Atma and Paramatma or Brahman and Parabrahman, the word Brahman and Supreme Brahman denote superiority in position despite qualitative oneness. Thus the ‘Supreme Brahman’ denotes a qualitative superiority of the Brahman.
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==व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology ==
 
==व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology ==
 
Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is derived from the dhatus बृहँ and बृहिँ in the meaning of वृद्धौ (vrddhi)<ref name=":0">Shabdakalpadruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82 See ब्रह्म])</ref> - बृंहति वर्द्धते निरतिशयमहत्त्व-लक्षणवृद्धिमान् भवतीत्यर्थः - to expand, grow, enlarge, one which is beyond comparison. It is used to explain the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme force which is attributeless.     
 
Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is derived from the dhatus बृहँ and बृहिँ in the meaning of वृद्धौ (vrddhi)<ref name=":0">Shabdakalpadruma ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82 See ब्रह्म])</ref> - बृंहति वर्द्धते निरतिशयमहत्त्व-लक्षणवृद्धिमान् भवतीत्यर्थः - to expand, grow, enlarge, one which is beyond comparison. It is used to explain the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme force which is attributeless.     
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* whether our personality survives death?
 
* whether our personality survives death?
 
* where does man go after death?
 
* where does man go after death?
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* is there existence of life in a world called heaven?  
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* is there existence of life in a world called devalokas/brahmaloka?  
 
* does he ever return to this world?
 
* does he ever return to this world?
 
* what is the final goal of life?
 
* what is the final goal of life?
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Any doctrine or siddhanta about Brahman involves theories explaining certain common groups of questions  
 
Any doctrine or siddhanta about Brahman involves theories explaining certain common groups of questions  
 
* emergence, sustenance and dissolution of the world (ontology)
 
* emergence, sustenance and dissolution of the world (ontology)
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* what is real and the principles applying to Universe, Atman, Brahman etc (metaphysics)
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* what is real and the principles applying to Jagat, Atman, Brahman etc (metaphysics)
 
* nature of things - sentient and insentient things, Brahman and others.  
 
* nature of things - sentient and insentient things, Brahman and others.  
 
* study of means of understanding knowledge, example Pramanas (epistemology)  
 
* study of means of understanding knowledge, example Pramanas (epistemology)  
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=== Answers ===
 
=== Answers ===
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The answer to the above natural quests are found in the conception of a Supreme Being or Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe, from whom, indeed, beings are born, through whom they live and unto whom they return and merge in. The knower of Brahman attains the highest.
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The answer to the above natural quests are found in the conception of a Supreme entity or Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe, from whom, indeed, beings are born, through whom they live and unto whom they return and merge in. The knower of Brahman attains the highest.
  
 
==== ब्रह्मलक्षणम् ॥ Defining Brahman ====
 
==== ब्रह्मलक्षणम् ॥ Defining Brahman ====
 
The characteristics of Brahma comprehensively put forth in Taittriya Upanishad in the Brahmanandavalli defines Brahman thus
 
The characteristics of Brahma comprehensively put forth in Taittriya Upanishad in the Brahmanandavalli defines Brahman thus
 
  सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । satyaṁ jñānamanantaṁ brahma । Brahman is Truth, Knowledge, Infinite (Tait. Upan. 3.1)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama (Page 290)</ref>
 
  सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । satyaṁ jñānamanantaṁ brahma । Brahman is Truth, Knowledge, Infinite (Tait. Upan. 3.1)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama (Page 290)</ref>
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He is again defined simply as having सच्चिदानन्दलक्षणम् as defined in Nrsimha Uttaratapaniya Upanishad and reiterated in Panchadashi composed by Vidyaranyaswami.  
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In defining the Brahman, the different vedanta systems critically discuss whether the above text denotes the very svarupa or Brahman or its characteristics using the grammatical rule of samanadhikaranya (सामानाधिकरण्यम्). 
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Advaitins hold that in the above Taittriryopanishad vakya, the terms convey an impartite and non-relational sense, because the sentence conveys the idea of one entity (a homogenous being) only when all its constituent terms denote one and the same thing (devoid of all difference), just as in "He is that Devadatta".
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Brahman is again defined simply as having सच्चिदानन्दलक्षणम् as defined in Nrsimha Uttaratapaniya Upanishad and reiterated in Panchadashi composed by Vidyaranyaswami.  
 
  सच्चिदानन्दमात्रः स स्वराड् भवति । saccidānandamātraḥ sa svarāḍ bhavati । He is effulgent with (the qualities of) Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss (Nrsim. Uttar. Upan.7)<ref>Nrsimha Uttarataapaniya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D-1 Complete])</ref>
 
  सच्चिदानन्दमात्रः स स्वराड् भवति । saccidānandamātraḥ sa svarāḍ bhavati । He is effulgent with (the qualities of) Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss (Nrsim. Uttar. Upan.7)<ref>Nrsimha Uttarataapaniya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D-1 Complete])</ref>
  
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* Pure Intelligence (प्रज्ञानघन)  
 
* Pure Intelligence (प्रज्ञानघन)  
 
* Pure Consciousness (चैतन्यमात्रम्)}}
 
* Pure Consciousness (चैतन्यमात्रम्)}}
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==== मूर्तामूर्तस्थितिः ॥ Two States of Brahman ====
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Brhdaranyanka Upanishad is one of the earliest texts mentioning the existence of the two states of Brahman<blockquote>द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे । मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च, मर्त्यं चामृतं च । स्थितं च यच्च । सच्च त्यं च ॥ बृह. २,३.१ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.1)<ref name=":12">Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_2p Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>Indeed, there are two forms of Brahman, gross (मूर्तं) and subtle (अमूर्तं) (with form and formless), mortal and immortal (changing and unchanging), finite and infinite, defined and undefined (existent and beyond (existence)).<ref name=":0222" />
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Brahman or the Supreme Self has but two forms, through the superimposition of which, by ignorance, the formless Supreme Brahman is defined or made conceivable. Which are those two forms? The gross and subtle. The other phases of the gross and subtle are included in them; so they are counted as two only. Here, the gross or Defined (Saguna), having particular characteristics that distinguish it from others and Undefined, the opposite of that, which can only be distantly referred to, as something unknown. The subtle is immortal not subject to destruction. This 'being' is the perfection of the two subtle elements (air and ether), because they emanate from the undifferentiated in order to form the subtle body of Hiranyagarbha (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.2-3).
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According to Advaita siddhanta, the Brahman that is (respectively) connected with the body and  organs, which are the product of the five elements, is designated as gross and subtle, is mortal and immortal and includes the impressions created by those elements, is the omniscient, omnipotent, conditioned Brahman Saguna). It consists of actions, their factors and their results, and admitting of all kinds of association. That same Brahman, again, is devoid of all limiting adjuncts, the object of intuition, birthless, undecaying, immortal, fearless, and beyond the reach of even speech and mind, being above duality, and is described as 'Not this, not this.'<ref>Swami Madhavananda (1950 Third Edition) ''The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentary of Sankaracharya''. Almora : Advaita Ashrama (Page 329)</ref>
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We now proceed to discuss the conditioned and unconditioned Brahman in further sections in light of the different schools of thought of vedanta.
  
 
== Brahman as in Different Sampradayas ==
 
== Brahman as in Different Sampradayas ==
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Everyone of the vedantic system-builders - Sri Shankara, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and others-has followed his own standpoint in his commentary of the Upanishads, bringing a mind illumined, directed by his own individual spiritual experience and interpreted all the passages to uphold his position and popularize the system of thought he expounded.<ref>Swami Ghanananda author of The Dawn of Indian Philosophy (1958) ''The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 1 : The Early Phases (Prehistoric, Vedic and Upanishadic, Jaina and Buddhist).'' Calcutta : The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Pages 333-344)</ref>
 
  
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While fundamentally in agreement regarding Brahman various Vedantic schools differ in the following aspects
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=== Unity of Brahman ===
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Rig veda
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Unlike the abrahmic faith, which creates a no-diversity in the process of sadhana or in the perfection (salvation of the Abrahmic faith), in Sanatana Dharma sadhana and sadhaka are unique as they are in the ultimate perfect state. According to Advaitins, the mokhsa is becoming one with Brahman and the Vaishnavaites experience Brahman in the form of Narayana and achieving the Narayana in the Vaikuntha loka. Within the Vaishnava vedanta there is more diversity of perfection with one achieving Vaikuntha; some call it as Goloka, others as Ayodhya, some others as Krishna, Narasimha depending on the deity that they are worship in their sadhana state. Therefore for a Vaishnava sadhana and sadhya are non-different.
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Thus, it appears as there are many deities but the character they experience is of the same essence of Brahman. As to the abrahmic faiths, they cannot comprehend the perfected stage manifesting in this diversity of forms.
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One many note that the habits, jivana vidhana, daivatarchara of practitioners of Advaita and Vaishnava vedantins are same, they perform all the samskaras which are essentially the same with minor local flavors. A mature Sanatana dharmi does not "tolerate" but "celebrates" the differences of diversity.
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In abrahmic faith, Kingdom of God is a localised place. One cannot invoke God in the visible world, but Brahman in Sanatana Dharma can be invoked and experienced in the visible world. It is a destination, which cannot be attained by a sinner, left with only once choice, in one life which is belief in One God without any diversity. If he cannot attain the Kingdom of God, he is eternally condemned, perpetually tormented for ever. All actions in Abrahmic faiths are seen as mundane, without any divinity involved. For a sanatana dharmi, life's activities are associated with divinity. Life itself is a yajna, for example, cooking involves worship of Agni, farming involves worship of the air, every being is considered divine (snakes, ants). Whatever dravya is available in his vicinity, is considered to be an offering in this yajna, thus there is clear accessibility to divinity, unlike in the abrahmic faiths where sadhya is not clearly defined. Abrahmic faiths are system centric believer and not sadhana centric seeker.
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9.27 BG
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For a Sanatana dharmi, in his avidya state, sin is conditional and circumstantial,  hence there is no condemnation or eternal hell. The state of perfection may be delayed but never denied. Creation is a linear aspect unlike in Sanatana Dharma where it is cyclical and eternal (karma siddhanta and punarjanma). 
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=== Differences about Brahman ===
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Everyone of the vedantic system-builders - Sri Shankara, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and others-has followed his own standpoint in his commentary of the Upanishads, bringing a mind illumined, directed by his own individual adhyatmik experience and interpreted all the passages to uphold his position and popularize the system of thought he expounded.<ref>Swami Ghanananda author of The Dawn of Indian Philosophy (1958) ''The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 1 : The Early Phases (Prehistoric, Vedic and Upanishadic, Jaina and Buddhist).'' Calcutta : The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Pages 333-344)</ref> The [[relationship of Atman and Brahman]] is the primary basis of defining the various vedanta schools, for example, Advaita school is so named as it posits that Atman and Brahman are one and the same, while Dvaita school maintains that Atman and Brahman are distinctly two entities.
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While fundamentally in agreement regarding the existence of Brahman various Vedantic schools differ as in following aspects
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
|+Key Differences of Brahman in Three Vedanta Sampradayas
 
|+Key Differences of Brahman in Three Vedanta Sampradayas
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|Who is Brahman
 
|Who is Brahman
 
|Attributeless without Name and Form
 
|Attributeless without Name and Form
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|Vishnu is Supreme Deity
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|Vishnu or Krishna is Supreme Deity
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|Brahman or Narayana (Purushottama)
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|Brahman or Purushottama  
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Real and Unreal
 
|Real and Unreal
 
|Brahman is Real, Samsara is Unreal
 
|Brahman is Real, Samsara is Unreal
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|World is Real with five-fold difference
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|Universe and its components are Real with five-fold difference
 
|Both Brahman and Samsara are Real
 
|Both Brahman and Samsara are Real
 
|-
 
|-
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|Jnana that Jivatma and Paramatma are One
 
|Jnana that Jivatma and Paramatma are One
 
|Attainment of Vishnu through Vishnuprasada (grace)  
 
|Attainment of Vishnu through Vishnuprasada (grace)  
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|Union with Vishnu
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|Attainment of Vishnu through Nityakainkarya
 
|}
 
|}
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[[Advaita Vedanta (अद्वैतवेदान्तः)]] sampradaya totally dismisses the concept that Brahman, Atman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained by Sri Adi Shankaracharya and Advaita Bhashyas. Important postulates of Advaita include
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==== Two States of Brahman ====
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* Brahman is without attributes (Nirguna Brahman), and is Real; all else is unreal.    
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Brhdaranyanka Upanishad is one of the earliest texts mentioning the existence of the two states of Brahman<blockquote>द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे । मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च, मर्त्यं चामृतं च । स्थितं च यच्च । सच्च त्यं च ॥ बृह. २,३.१ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.1)<ref name=":12" /></blockquote>Indeed, there are two states of Brahman, gross and subtle (with form and formless), mortal and immortal (changing and unchanging), finite and infinite, defined and undefined (existent and beyond (existence)).<ref name=":0222" />
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* Atman (Jivatma) and Paramatma are the same without any difference.   
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* The idea of difference between them arises from Avidya (ignorance, lack of yadartha jnana) and when Atma transcends Avidya, it brings about the realization of the All-ness and wholeness of the Atman as indicated by the vidya-sutra  <blockquote>आत्मेत्येवोपासीतात्र ह्येते सर्व एकं भवन्ति । ātmetyevopāsītātra hyete sarva ekaṁ bhavanti । (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.7)<ref name=":5">Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>
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Brahman or the Supreme Self has but two forms, through the superimposition of which by ignorance the formless Supreme Brahman is defined or made conceivable. Which are those two forms? The gross and subtle. The other phases of the gross and subtle are included in them; so they are counted as two only. Here, Defined, having particular characteristics that distinguish it from others and Undefined, the opposite of that, which can only be distantly referred to, as something unknown.<ref>Swami Madhavananda (1950 Third Edition) ''The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentary of Sankaracharya''. Almora : Advaita Ashrama (Page 329)</ref>
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* The Universe springs from Brahman, just like hairs on a man's head; it is the work of Maya.
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* Cause and effect are one and the same (कार्यकारण-अभेदः) just like an aggregation of threads is seen in the form of a cloth.
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== निर्गुणब्रह्मा ॥ Nirguna Brahma ==
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As long as the Atma identifies itself with the [[Upadhi (उपाधिः)|Upadhis]] (vehicle of atma), it remains bound in Samsara, when it Knows Itself as Self, it becomes free from Samsara. For those who are not yet ready for this effort of Self Knowledge, ritual is not only desirable but also necessary. Those who reached the point where Atma only attracts them, Jnanam is enough and by Sadhana they achieve Brahman, the goal. However, a Jnani does not abstain from Karma or actions (similar as in Samkhya siddhanta), he best understands them and actively engages in them, being unattached to the results and not by the dictate of desire. Such a person is called Jivanmukta.
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'''Advaita Vedantins''' totally dismiss the concept that Brahman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained by Sri Adi Shankaracharya and Advaita Bhashyas. Postulates of Advaita include  
 
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* Brahman is Nirguna, without attributes, and is Real; all else is unreal;    
 
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* Jivatma and Paramatma are the same without any difference.   
 
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* The idea of difference between them arises from Avidya (nescience, ignorance, lack of yadartha jnana) and when Atma transcends Avidya, it brings about the realization of the All-ness and wholeness of the Atman as indicated by the vidya-sutra  <blockquote>आत्मेत्येवोपासीतात्र ह्येते सर्व एकं भवन्ति । ātmetyevopāsītātra hyete sarva ekaṁ bhavanti । (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.7)<ref name=":5">Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>
 
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* The Universe springs from Brahman, just like hairs on a man's head; it is the work of Maya.  
 
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Cause and effect are one and the same (कार्यकारण-अभेदः) just like an aggregation of threads is seen in the form of a cloth. As long as the Atma identifies itself with the [[Upadhi (उपाधिः)|Upadhis]] (vehicle of atma), it remains bound in Samsara, when it Knows Itself as Self, it becomes free from Samsara. For those who are not yet ready for this effort of Self Knowledge, ritual is not only desirable but also necessary. Those who reached the point where Atma only attracts them, Jnanam is enough and by Sadhana they achieve Brahman, the goal. However, a Jnani does not abstain from Karma or actions (similar as in Samkhya siddhanta), he best understands them and actively engages in them, being unattached to the results and not by the dictate of desire. Such a person is called Jivanmukta.
 
  
 
For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the conversation between [[Uddalaka and Shvetaketu (उद्दालकः श्वेतकेतुः च।)|Uddalaka and Shvetaketu]]. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cycle of birth and death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/EightUpanishadsWithSankarabhashyamSwamiGambhiranandaVol11989/page/n198 Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya)]'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>
 
For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the conversation between [[Uddalaka and Shvetaketu (उद्दालकः श्वेतकेतुः च।)|Uddalaka and Shvetaketu]]. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cycle of birth and death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/EightUpanishadsWithSankarabhashyamSwamiGambhiranandaVol11989/page/n198 Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya)]'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>
  
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=== Unity of Jivatma and Brahman ===
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The [[Dvaita Vedanta (द्वैतवेदान्तः)]] sampradaya upholds the distinctness of Paramatma from Jivatma both in material world and in Moksha. It teaches that Vishnu is the Supreme Deity and formed the Universe out of Prkriti which is already existing. Here the concept of Supreme (Brahman) is seen in Vishnu, who is the efficient cause of the Universe. It follows the Samkhya darshana way of describing the evolution and that Jiva travels on a adhyatmik journey to attain the Paramatma. Jiva attains Moksha in which it remains in Bhoga (भोगः । enjoyment of eternal bliss) with the Paramatma. The Jiva reaches one or other of the four conditions
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According to the Advaita Sampradaya the impersonal Brahman is  essentially identical with the Atman. Many primary expressions of human nature such as, fear, sorrow, delusion etc are explained as ignorance of the being.
 
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==== Brhdaranyaka Upanishad ====
 
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One of the earliest references to the unity of the Atman and Brahman and the way to such realization is found mentioned in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. In the context of explaining about fear, the Upanishad says<blockquote>कस्माद्ध्यभेष्यत् । द्वितीयाद्वै भयं भवति ॥ बृह. १,४.२ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.2)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Meaning: For what was there to fear? It is from a second entity that fear comes.
 
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Nothing short of realization of identity can banish all grief and misery, 'a second entity indeed causes fear'.<ref name=":2" /> The means of removing this false notion that caused the fear, was, the right knowledge of the Self. The second entity is merely projected by ignorance, when it is not perceived at all, it cannot cause fear. Thus the notion of a second entity was removed by the knowledge of Unity; it was non-existent<ref>Swami Madhavananda (1950 Third Edition) ''The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentry of Sankaracharya''. Almora : Advaita Ashrama (Page 95-96)</ref>.
 
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Brhdaranyaka Upanishad also lays emphasis of the Unity of Jiva and Brahman (2.4.6-9)<ref name=":12">Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_2p Adhyaya 2])</ref>. In the [[Yajnavalkya Maitreyi samvada (याज्ञवल्क्यमैत्रेय्योः संवादः)|Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi Samvada]] the very nature of Atman is defined. All the brahmanas, kshatriyas, the whole world, the countless devatas and all beings are the form of Atman only.<ref name=":1" />
 
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==== Isavasyopanishad ====
 
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Isopanishad or Isavasyopanishad ascertains that when the second entity is not perceived at all, one becomes free of all grief<blockquote>यस्मिन्सर्वाणि भूतान्यात्मैवाभूद्विजानतः । तत्र को मोहः कः शोक एकत्वमनुपश्यतः ॥ ७ ॥ (Isav. Upan. 7)<ref>Isopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D Complete])</ref></blockquote>When to the man of realization all beings become the very Self, then what delusion and sorrow can be there for that seer of Oneness.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama (Page 13)</ref>
 
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==== Mundakopanishad ====
 
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Their apparent difference (Brahman and Atman), but essential unity is admirably presented in the following oft-quoted mantras from Mundakopanishad <blockquote>द्वा सुपर्णा सयुजा सखाया समानं वृक्षं परिषस्वजाते । तयोरन्यः पिप्पलं स्वाद्वत्त्यनश्नन्नन्यो अभिचाकशीति ॥ १ ॥ </blockquote><blockquote>समाने वृक्षे पुरुषो निमग्नोऽनीशया शोचति मुह्यमानः । जुष्टं यदा पश्यत्यन्यमीशमस्य महिमानमिति वीतशोकः ॥ २ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 3.1.1-2)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Summary : Two birds of beautiful plumage (Atman and Brahman) who are friends and always joined together, cling to the same tree (the body). One of them (the Atman) eats sweet (and bitter) fruits (experiences the results of its past work), but the other only looks on without eating. On the same tree (wholly identified with the body), the individual Atman (Purusha) remains drowned (stuck); is overwhelmed by his impotence and suffers. When is sees the other, the Infinite Being (Isham) and His glory, then it becomes liberated from sorrow.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":32">Swami Gambhirananda (1937) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 2 (Aitareya, Mundaka, Mandukya and Karika, and  Prasna) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. (Pages 145-147)</ref>
 
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==== Mandukya Upanishad ====
 
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Mandukya Upanishad's Mahavakya reinforces the concept of unity of Atma and Paramatma.<blockquote>सर्वं ह्येतद् ब्रह्मा अयमात्मा ब्रह्म सोऽयमात्मा चतुष्पात् ॥ २ ॥(Mand. Upan. 2)<ref>Mandukya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Complete])</ref></blockquote>All this is surely Brahman. The Self os Brahman. The Self, such as It is, is possessed of four quarters.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1937) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 2 (Aitareya, Mundaka, Mandukya and Karika, and  Prasna) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. (Page 181)</ref>
 
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==== Kathopanishad ====
 
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In Kathopanishad, the concept of Brahman is discussed when Nachiketa presses Yama to reveal to him the supreme secret, Yama says <ref name=":1">Sharma, Ram Murthy. (1987 2nd edition) ''Vaidik Sahitya ka Itihas'' Delhi : Eastern Book Linkers (Page 143)</ref><blockquote>यदेवेह तदमुत्र यदमुत्र तदन्विह । मृत्योः स मृत्युमाप्नोति य इह नानेव पश्यति ॥ १० ॥</blockquote><blockquote>yadeveha tadamutra yadamutra tadanviha । mr̥tyoḥ sa mr̥tyumāpnoti ya iha nāneva paśyati ॥ 10 ॥</blockquote><blockquote>मनसैवेदमाप्तव्यं नेह नानाऽस्ति किंचन । मृत्योः स मृत्युं गच्छति य इह नानेव पश्यति ॥ ११ ॥ (Kath. Upan. 2.1.10-11)<ref>Kathopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80 Adhyaya 2, Valli 1])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>manasaivedamāptavyaṁ neha nānā'sti kiṁcana । mr̥tyoḥ sa mr̥tyuṁ gacchati ya iha nāneva paśyati ॥ 11 ॥ (Kath. Upan. 2.1.10-11)</blockquote>Summary : The entity that exists in all beings from Brahma down to immovable and appears as non-Brahman owing to limiting factors (Jiva) is different from Supreme Brahman, is subject to birth and death. What indeed is here, is there and what is there is here. He who sees as though there is difference between the two, goes from death to death. This is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Self and Supreme Brahman.'''<ref name=":3">Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>'''
 
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==== Bhagavadgita ====
 
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Further in the Bhagavadgita, Shri Krishna reminds us of the essential identity between Jivatma and the Supreme<blockquote>ममैवांशो जीवलोके जीवभूतः सनातनः । मनःषष्ठानीन्द्रियाणि प्रकृतिस्थानि कर्षति ॥१५- ७॥ (Bhag. Gita. 15.7)</blockquote>It is verily a part of Mine which, becoming the eternal Jivatma (individual Atman) in the world of life, draws (to itself) the sense organs with the Manas as their sixth, placed in Nature.<ref name=":0222" />
 
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The Upanishads discuss the metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Saṇḍilya vidya in Chandogya Upanishad (Adhyaya 14)<ref name="gjha314">Mm. Ganganatha Jha (1942) ''Chandogya Upanishad with the Commentary of Sankara.'' Poona : Oriental Book Agency ([https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Pages 150-157])</ref>. The Saṇḍilya vidya on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana (10.6.3<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 10 Adhyaya 6])</ref>). It asserts that Atman (Soul, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman is identical with Atman, that the Brahman is inside man – thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Bharat's philosophies.
 
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== सगुणब्रह्मा ॥ Saguna Brahma ==
 
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'''The Dvaita Vedantins''' uphold the distinctness of Paramatma from Jivatma both in material world and in Moksha. It teaches that Vishnu is the Supreme Deity and formed the Universe out of Prkriti which is already existing. Here the concept of Supreme (Brahman) is seen in Vishnu, who is the efficient cause of the Universe. It follows the Samkhya darshana way of describing the evolution and that Jiva travels on a spiritual journey to attain the Paramatma. Jiva attains Moksha in which it remains in Bhoga (भोगः । enjoyment of eternal bliss) with the Paramatma. The Jiva reaches one or other of the four conditions
 
 
#Sarupya (सारूप्यम् । Same form as the Divine Form)
 
#Sarupya (सारूप्यम् । Same form as the Divine Form)
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#Salokya (सालोक्यम् । Residence in the same loka as the Divine Form eg : Goloka)
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#Salokya (सालोक्यम् । Residence in the same loka as the Divine Form eg : Vaikuntha)
 
#Sannidhya (सान्निध्यम् । Being in proximity to the Divine Form)
 
#Sannidhya (सान्निध्यम् । Being in proximity to the Divine Form)
 
#Sayujyam (सायुज्यम् । Union with the Divine Form).
 
#Sayujyam (सायुज्यम् । Union with the Divine Form).
 
However, this union is not to be considered as one of identity of nature. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":0222">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref>).
 
However, this union is not to be considered as one of identity of nature. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":0222">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref>).
  
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'''The Vishistadvaita Vedantins''' uphold separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । ) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman.  Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.<ref name=":0222" />
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The [[Vishistadvaita Vedanta (विशिष्टाद्वैतवेदान्तः)]] sampradaya upholds separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । dissolution) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman.  Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.<ref name=":0222" />
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==Schools of thought==
 
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===Vedanta===
 
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The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.
 
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====Advaita Vedanta====
 
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{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}
 
  
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Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name="jeffreybrodd">Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47</ref><ref name="barbarasca">Barbara Holdrege (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 241-242</ref><ref name="rdalal">Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.
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== Atma as Amsha of Brahma ==
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Shvetasvatara Upanishad is one of the important texts that explains the difference between the Jivatma (variously called as Atman closely translated as individual soul) and Brahman. The upanishad first shows the distinction between the Individual Self (Jivatma) and the Supreme Self (Brahman) due to the limiting adjuncts in the observable state (empirical) and then reveals Amrtattva (immortality) as a consequence of the realization of That (supreme self):<ref name=":1">Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) ''Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya.'' Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 75-78)</ref><blockquote>संयुक्तमेतत्क्षरमक्षरं च व्यक्ताव्यक्तं भरते विश्वमीशः । अनीशश्चात्मा बध्यते भोक्तृभावाज्ज्ञात्वा देवं मुच्यते सर्वपाशैः ॥ ८ ॥ (Shvet. Upan. 1.7)<ref>Shvetasvatara Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>Ishvara nourishes this universe consisting of effect and cause, the Vyaktam (व्यक्तम् । manifested) and Avyaktam (अव्यक्तम् । Unmanifested) which are respectively the Ksharam (क्षरम् । mutable, destructible) and Aksharam (अक्षरम् । immutable, indestructible) which are mutually associated (संयुक्तम्). The individual Atman, which is not independent, becomes bound due to its sense of being the Bhoktr (भोक्तृभावात् । enjoyer); realizing the effulgent Self (supreme), it becomes freed from all bondages.  
  
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The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>
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Simply put the Upanishad expresses the difference between the Atman and Brahman due to the limiting adjuncts (Atman is possessed of the individual body and organs and is not independent) therefore the Atman becomes free by realising the Brahman (who is unconditioned or without limiting adjuncts) through meditation (on the Supreme) with the help of His limiting adjuncts. Thus the Upanishad clarifies the standpoint of unity of the (individual) enjoyer and the (supreme) Self.<ref name=":1" />
  
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In [[Advaita Vedanta]], nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /><ref name="williamw">William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)</ref> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>
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The Puranas also reinforce the concept of Atman as distinct from the Brahman due to its attributes of Nature and the way to dissociate from them. According to Vishnudharmottara Purana, the individual Atman is imagined through ignorance. When that is dissipated the difference between the individual Atma and supreme Brahman vanishes to be sure. Visnupurana (6.7.96) also points to Avidya or ignorance that creates a difference - which (really) does not exist - between the Self and Brahman.  
  
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Example verses from [[Bhagavad-Gita]] include:{{Quote|
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It may be pointed out that there exist different perspectives of various schools of Vedanta on Self and Brahman.  
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<poem>
 
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The [[Yajna|offering]] is Brahman; the oblation is Brahman;
 
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offered by Brahman into the fire of Brahman.
 
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Brahman will be attained by him,
 
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who always sees Brahman in action. – Hymn 4.24<ref>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, page 224</ref><ref>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, page 83</ref>
 
  
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He who finds his happiness within,
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Bhagavadgita clearly ascertains the Amshatva (अंशत्वम्। being a part, a limb, a portion ) of Atma  of the Supreme Self.<blockquote>ममैवांशो जीवलोके जीवभूतः सनातनः। मनःषष्ठानीन्द्रियाणि प्रकृतिस्थानि कर्षति।।15.7।। (Bhag. Gita. 15.7)</blockquote>Meaning : It is verily a part of Mine which, becoming the eternal individual atma in the region of living beings, attracts (to itself) the senses (and the organs) of which the mind is the sixth, and which abide in Nature.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda's English Translation of Srimad Bhagavadgita along with Sri Sankaracharya's Sanskrit Commentary. (Pages 621-622)</ref>
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His delight within,
 
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And his light within,
 
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This yogin attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman. – Hymn 5.24<ref>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, page 266</ref>
 
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</poem>
 
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|Bhagavad Gita|}}
 
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====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====
 
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The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
 
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====Dvaita Vedanta====
 
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{{Vaishnavism}} Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.
 
  
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Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
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That individual self, whose nature has been described thus, though an everlasting part of Myself, becomes the 'bound individual self' in the world of living beings. Covered by ignorance in the form of a beginningless Karma, It attracts to Itself the five senses and the mind, which are located in the bodies of devatas, men etc., and which are particular transformations of Prakrti. Some parts of Myself (i.e., the selves), becoming free from ignorance (Avidya) in the aforesaid manner, remain in their own intrinsic nature.<ref>Swami Adidevananda's Translation of Srimad Bhagavadgita along with Sri Ramanujacharya's Commentary. ([https://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/srimad?language=dv&field_chapter_value=15&field_nsutra_value=7&scram=1&etradi=1&etadi=1&choose=1 See Gitasupersite])</ref>
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#Jîva-Îshvara-bheda&nbsp;— difference between the soul and Vishnu
 
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#Jada-Îshvara-bheda&nbsp;— difference between the insentient and Vishnu
 
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#Mitha-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two souls
 
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#Jada-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between insentient and the soul
 
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#Mitha-jada-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two insentients
 
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====Achintya Bheda Abheda====
 
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The Acintya Bheda Abheda philosophy is similar to [[Dvaitadvaita]] (differential [[monism]]). In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called jnana) of Absolute Truth, He is realized as impersonal Brahman, then as personal Brahman having eternal Vaikuntha abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as Paramatma (by process of [[yoga]]-[[meditation]] on Supersoul, Vishnu-God in heart)&nbsp;– Vishnu ([[Narayana]], also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Vishnulokas (Vaikunthalokas), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by [[bhakti]]) as [[Bhagavan]], Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal, impersonal, or both).{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
 
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===Vaishnavism===
 
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{{Main|Vaishnavism}}
 
  
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All Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an intermediate step of self-realization, but not Mukti, or final liberation of complete God-realization through Bhakti Yoga.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
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== Parabrahman ==
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Many texts mention the terms Parabrahman, Paramatma, Parashakti, Purushottama etc in denoting the entity who is all-pervading, all-knowing and all-blissful.  
  
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Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Vishnu/Krishna; the universe and all other manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
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According to the Vaishnava vedantins, Purushottama denoting exemplary characteristics represents the Parabrahman. Jiva in the eternal state (Atman) maintaining the distinctness from Parabrahman, serves Him in Vaikuntha, after attaining the Sat-Chit-Ananda (which are again the characteristics of Purushottama). Jivas are in Unity with the Parabrahma in quality though different in quantity and they remain so even in the state of Moksha.
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===Bhakti movement===
 
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{{main|Bhakti movement}}
 
  
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The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman – ''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna''. ''Nirguna'' Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality. ''Saguna'' Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality. The two had parallels in the ancient panthestic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita. It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from ''Nirguni'' knowledge-focus and other from ''Saguni'' love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita. ''Nirguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Jnana-shrayi'', or had roots in knowledge. In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.
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Advaita concept is that Jiva (bound with Upadhi, in conditional state) experiences distinctness from the eternal Parabraman due to Avidya. IT, that nameless, formless supreme entity called Parabrahman is the goal of a sadhaka engaged in the practice of Paravidya, (the Brahmavidya) knowing which is the Supreme Wisdom (Jnana) achieved through the paths laid down in the various texts, discussed through ages in the Upanishads and Brahmasutras. Here the Atman conditioned by the Upadhi is the same as Brahman or Parabrahman who is attributeless.<ref name=":0222" />
  
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Jeaneane Fowler states that  Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were ''Sandilya Bhakti Sutra'' – a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and ''Narada Bhakti Sutra'' – a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.<ref>Jessica Frazier and Gavin Flood (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 113-115</ref>
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Kaivalyopanishad summarizes the nature of Brahman as follows
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: मय्येव सकलं जातं मयि सर्वं प्रतिष्ठितम् । मयि सर्वं लयं याति तद्ब्रह्माद्वयमस्म्यहम् ॥ १९ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 19)
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In me alone is everything born, in me does everything rest and in me is everything dissolved. I am that Brahman, advayam or secondless.<blockquote>न पुण्यपापे मम नास्ति नाशो न जन्म देहेन्द्रियबुद्धिरस्ति । न भूमिरापो न च वह्निरस्ति न चानिलो मेऽस्ति न चाम्बरं च ॥ २३ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 23)</blockquote><blockquote>एवं विदित्वा परमात्मरूपं गुहाशयं निष्कलमद्वितीयम् । समस्तसाक्षिं सदसद्विहीनं प्रयाति शुद्धं परमात्मरूपम् ॥ २४ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 24)<ref>Kaivalya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Complete])</ref></blockquote>For Me there is neither earth, nor water, nor fire, nor air, nor ether. Thus realising the Paramatman, who lies in the cavity of the heart, who is without parts, and without a second, the Witness of all, beyond both existence and non-existence - one attains the Pure Paramatman Itself.<ref>The Kaivalya Upanishad Translated by Swami Madhavananda. Kolkata : Advaita Ashram</ref>
  
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''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name="davidlorenzenns">David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2</ref> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name="davidlorenzenns" /> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name="karen21">Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 21</ref>
 
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==Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas==
 
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Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality,<ref name="BondKunin2003p231">{{cite book|author1=Helen K. Bond |author2=Seth D. Kunin|author3=Francesca Murphy |title=Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HokZ5UW5fZsC&pg=PA231 |year=2003|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9914-7 |pages=231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=William Sweet |title=Approaches to Metaphysics |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cyCme74cZ1IC |year=2006|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2182-4|pages=145–147 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=H. James Birx |title=Encyclopedia of Anthropology |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8m_vBQAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6536-0 |pages=1279 }}</ref> that, states Doniger, is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence.<ref name="Doniger1999p437">{{cite book|author=Wendy Denier|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |pages=437 }}</ref> It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /> It is a gender neutral abstract concept.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /><ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |year=1998|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10260-4 |pages=256 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush |author2=Catherine Robinson |author3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |pages=114–115 }}</ref> The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads;<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Craig|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lS2cSqwMtf8C |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-18707-7 |pages=1–4 }}</ref> while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Julius Lipner |title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC |year=1994|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05181-1 |pages=43–44 }}</ref> In the Puranic and the Epics literature, deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently. Some texts suggest that god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism),<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |pages=147 }}</ref> others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism),<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |pages=125 }}</ref> yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism),<ref name="kinsley137">{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=137 }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name="kinsley137" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205-206 }}</ref> Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna''{{refn|group=note|representation with face and attributes)<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref>}} Brahman is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> is Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=171 }}</ref> or is Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=136 }}</ref> respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=William K. Mahony |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |pages=13–14, 187 }}</ref>
 
 
==References==
 
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[[Category:Vedanta]]
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[[Category:Sampradayas]]

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Brahman (Samskrit : ब्रह्मन्) in general signifies the Absolute, Eternal, Changeless, Infinite element without attributes, qualities beyond name and form, yet all encompassing the universe called variously as Brahman, Purusha and Satya.

While the samskrit word Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) used in this article is a pratipadika (a stem), this entity is referred to mostly as Brahma padarth in the various texts. The first case ending of Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is Brahma (ब्रह्मा) which should not be confused with the deity Brahma who is the creator among the trimurthis (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva).

Talk on Energy in the Vedas

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

An abstract but highly discussed word, Brahman, is the core of the Vedanta and Upanishad texts, a concept fundamental and unique to Sanatana Dharma. No other philosophy in the world, in the history of thought, has evolved and discussed the concept of Brahman; it is the most ancient mystery of the worlds. Brahman is not equal to "God" of the abrahmic faiths.

All Bharatiya sampradayas are unified in agreeing to the existence of Brahman, which is regarded as attributeless supreme entity, Satya by the Advaita vedantin. On the other hand, the Vaishnava vedantin also accepts Brahman as One in character, the reality of eternal existence. They distinguish consciously between Brahman and Supreme Brahman (Shri Narayana or Shri Krishna or Shri Rama).

variations amongst them are seen only with respect to the path followed to understand and experience Brahman.

वेदान्तमते ‘वस्तु सच्चिदानन्दाद्वयं ब्रह्म तथा अज्ञानादिसकलजडसमूहोऽवस्तु ।’ ‘ब्रह्मैव नित्यं वस्तु तदन्यदखिलमनित्यम् ।’[1]
vedāntamate ‘vastu saccidānandādvayaṁ brahma tathā ajñānādisakalajaḍasamūho'vastu ।’ ‘brahmaiva nityaṁ vastu tadanyadakhilamanityam ।

It should also be noted that Supreme Brahman and ‘Brahman is supreme’ mean two different things. An observation from the position of physical state, Brahman is supreme. But from the position of Atma and Paramatma or Brahman and Parabrahman, the word Brahman and Supreme Brahman denote superiority in position despite qualitative oneness. Thus the ‘Supreme Brahman’ denotes a qualitative superiority of the Brahman.

व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology

Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) is derived from the dhatus बृहँ and बृहिँ in the meaning of वृद्धौ (vrddhi)[1] - बृंहति वर्द्धते निरतिशयमहत्त्व-लक्षणवृद्धिमान् भवतीत्यर्थः - to expand, grow, enlarge, one which is beyond comparison. It is used to explain the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme force which is attributeless.

Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of a deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self.

It is distinct from:

  • A Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्) which is the prose explanation of the mantras, one of the four divisions of the Vedic texts.
  • A Brahmana (ब्राह्मणः) (masculine) is one who belongs to the Brahmana varna (first of the four varnas); in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as Brahmin (ब्राह्मणः).
  • Brahma (ब्रह्मा) is a deity who has the role of the creator among the Trimurtis, having a lifetime measured in kalpas (see Kala)
  • Ishvara (ईश्वरः), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless Brahman. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and a personal Brahman.

Evolution of Concept of Brahman

The Upanishads which develop ideas that are in germ in the Veda Samhitas are the only source of definite knowledge, to answer the questions which ever baffled the human mind. Questions that man has been trying to answer from ages include

  • whether our personality survives death?
  • where does man go after death?
  • is there existence of life in a world called devalokas/brahmaloka?
  • does he ever return to this world?
  • what is the final goal of life?
  • what is nature of the final goal of the world?
  • what is the nature and definition of the supreme entity that man believes in?
  • nature of Atman (individual Jivatma) and its relationship with other Jagat (world) and with Supreme entity (Brahman)?
  • what is the ultimate truth of existence?
  • how did the universe originate?

Obviously no other knowledge source has ever attempted to answer such questions and it is only Upanishads and other Vedanta texts that give us the last word on all such matters apart from practicing what is given in them. Through no other means is it possible for us to get convincing answers to our queries regarding them. Not being the work of man (Apaurusheya) Upanishads are free from the usual shortcomings of all human endeavor such as error, doubt, and deception. It is open to us all to verify their statements by actual experience along the lines prescribed by them. The truths inculcated in them are not mere theories, but facts, and as such are invulnerable.[2]

Questions

Any doctrine or siddhanta about Brahman involves theories explaining certain common groups of questions

  • emergence, sustenance and dissolution of the world (ontology)
  • what is real and the principles applying to Jagat, Atman, Brahman etc (metaphysics)
  • nature of things - sentient and insentient things, Brahman and others.
  • study of means of understanding knowledge, example Pramanas (epistemology)
  • relationship between individual Jivatmas, the inanimate matter (Jagat), Supreme Being (Ishvara)
  • modes of attaining the final goal Moksha (soteriology)
  • essence and value attributed to Brahman and other aspects of Vedanta (axiology)

Shvetasvatara Upanishad in the very first mantra puts forth these questions as deliberated by the Brahmavadins

ॐ ब्रह्मवादिनो वदन्ति ।

किं कारणं ब्रह्म कुतः स्म जाता जीवाम केन क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा । अधिष्ठिताः केन सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे ब्रह्मविदो व्यवस्थाम् ॥ १ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1)

oṁ brahmavādino vadanti ।

kiṁ kāraṇaṁ brahma kutaḥ sma jātā jīvāma kena kva ca sampratiṣṭhā । adhiṣṭhitāḥ kena sukhetareṣu vartāmahe brahmavido vyavasthām ॥ 1 ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1)

Summary : People accustomed to deliberate on Brahman discuss : What is the nature of Brahman, the Source (किं कारणं ब्रह्म)? From what have been born (कुतः स्म जाता)? By what do we live (जीवाम केन)? And where do we exist, rest, at the time of dissolution (क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा)? O Knowers of Brahman, regulated by whom (अधिष्ठिताः केन) do we conform to the system regarding happiness and its opposite namely sorrows (सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे)?

In this way the question "What is the cause" (किं कारणं । kiṁ kāraṇaṁ) pertains to the primordial cause of the regulation of creation, continuance and dissolution.[3]

Mundakopanishad also raises the question of Knowledge and seeks answers to understand the nature of vidya

कस्मिन्नु भगवो विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवतीति ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)[4]

kasminnu bhagavo vijñāte sarvamidaṁ vijñātaṁ bhavatīti ॥ 3 ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)

Meaning : What is that by knowing which everything in this universe is known?

Answers

The answer to the above natural quests are found in the conception of a Supreme entity or Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe, from whom, indeed, beings are born, through whom they live and unto whom they return and merge in. The knower of Brahman attains the highest.

ब्रह्मलक्षणम् ॥ Defining Brahman

The characteristics of Brahma comprehensively put forth in Taittriya Upanishad in the Brahmanandavalli defines Brahman thus 

सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । satyaṁ jñānamanantaṁ brahma । Brahman is Truth, Knowledge, Infinite (Tait. Upan. 3.1)[5]

In defining the Brahman, the different vedanta systems critically discuss whether the above text denotes the very svarupa or Brahman or its characteristics using the grammatical rule of samanadhikaranya (सामानाधिकरण्यम्).

Advaitins hold that in the above Taittriryopanishad vakya, the terms convey an impartite and non-relational sense, because the sentence conveys the idea of one entity (a homogenous being) only when all its constituent terms denote one and the same thing (devoid of all difference), just as in "He is that Devadatta".

Brahman is again defined simply as having सच्चिदानन्दलक्षणम् as defined in Nrsimha Uttaratapaniya Upanishad and reiterated in Panchadashi composed by Vidyaranyaswami. 

सच्चिदानन्दमात्रः स स्वराड् भवति । saccidānandamātraḥ sa svarāḍ bhavati । He is effulgent with (the qualities of) Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss (Nrsim. Uttar. Upan.7)[6]

सच्चित्सुखात्मकं ब्रह्म ...। saccitsukhātmakaṁ brahma ...। The nature of Brahman is existence, consciousness, and bliss (Panchadasi 13.62)[7][8]

ब्रह्मतत्वम् ॥ Nature of Brahman

Discussion on Brahmatattva or nature of Brahman is extensive and ageless with numerous Upanishad and Vedanta bhashyas on the subject explaining different characteristics. Putting together the Upanishadic and Brahmasutra explanations, Brahman is said to have the following features

  • All-perceiving (सर्वानुभूः)
  • Immortal (तदमृतँ)
  • Eternal (नित्यम्)
  • Formless (अरूपम्)
  • Undiminishing (अव्ययम्)
  • Hidden in every being (भूतेषु गूढः)
  • Constant (ध्रुवं)
  • Birthless (अजः)
  • Lacks vital force (अप्राणः)
  • Without mind (अमनाः)
  • Unattached (असङ्गम्)
  • Without beginning or end (अनाद्यनन्तं)
  • Unfathomable (अग्राह्यम्)
  • Cannot be inferred (अलक्षणं)
  • Unthinkable (अचिन्त्यम्)
  • Indescribable by words (अव्यपदेश्यम्)
  • Distinct from Buddhi (महतः परं)
  • Pure Intelligence (प्रज्ञानघन)
  • Pure Consciousness (चैतन्यमात्रम्)

मूर्तामूर्तस्थितिः ॥ Two States of Brahman

Brhdaranyanka Upanishad is one of the earliest texts mentioning the existence of the two states of Brahman

द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे । मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च, मर्त्यं चामृतं च । स्थितं च यच्च । सच्च त्यं च ॥ बृह. २,३.१ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.1)[9]

Indeed, there are two forms of Brahman, gross (मूर्तं) and subtle (अमूर्तं) (with form and formless), mortal and immortal (changing and unchanging), finite and infinite, defined and undefined (existent and beyond (existence)).[10]

Brahman or the Supreme Self has but two forms, through the superimposition of which, by ignorance, the formless Supreme Brahman is defined or made conceivable. Which are those two forms? The gross and subtle. The other phases of the gross and subtle are included in them; so they are counted as two only. Here, the gross or Defined (Saguna), having particular characteristics that distinguish it from others and Undefined, the opposite of that, which can only be distantly referred to, as something unknown. The subtle is immortal not subject to destruction. This 'being' is the perfection of the two subtle elements (air and ether), because they emanate from the undifferentiated in order to form the subtle body of Hiranyagarbha (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.2-3).

According to Advaita siddhanta, the Brahman that is (respectively) connected with the body and organs, which are the product of the five elements, is designated as gross and subtle, is mortal and immortal and includes the impressions created by those elements, is the omniscient, omnipotent, conditioned Brahman Saguna). It consists of actions, their factors and their results, and admitting of all kinds of association. That same Brahman, again, is devoid of all limiting adjuncts, the object of intuition, birthless, undecaying, immortal, fearless, and beyond the reach of even speech and mind, being above duality, and is described as 'Not this, not this.'[11]

We now proceed to discuss the conditioned and unconditioned Brahman in further sections in light of the different schools of thought of vedanta.

Brahman as in Different Sampradayas

Unity of Brahman

Rig veda

Unlike the abrahmic faith, which creates a no-diversity in the process of sadhana or in the perfection (salvation of the Abrahmic faith), in Sanatana Dharma sadhana and sadhaka are unique as they are in the ultimate perfect state. According to Advaitins, the mokhsa is becoming one with Brahman and the Vaishnavaites experience Brahman in the form of Narayana and achieving the Narayana in the Vaikuntha loka. Within the Vaishnava vedanta there is more diversity of perfection with one achieving Vaikuntha; some call it as Goloka, others as Ayodhya, some others as Krishna, Narasimha depending on the deity that they are worship in their sadhana state. Therefore for a Vaishnava sadhana and sadhya are non-different.

Thus, it appears as there are many deities but the character they experience is of the same essence of Brahman. As to the abrahmic faiths, they cannot comprehend the perfected stage manifesting in this diversity of forms.

One many note that the habits, jivana vidhana, daivatarchara of practitioners of Advaita and Vaishnava vedantins are same, they perform all the samskaras which are essentially the same with minor local flavors. A mature Sanatana dharmi does not "tolerate" but "celebrates" the differences of diversity.

In abrahmic faith, Kingdom of God is a localised place. One cannot invoke God in the visible world, but Brahman in Sanatana Dharma can be invoked and experienced in the visible world. It is a destination, which cannot be attained by a sinner, left with only once choice, in one life which is belief in One God without any diversity. If he cannot attain the Kingdom of God, he is eternally condemned, perpetually tormented for ever. All actions in Abrahmic faiths are seen as mundane, without any divinity involved. For a sanatana dharmi, life's activities are associated with divinity. Life itself is a yajna, for example, cooking involves worship of Agni, farming involves worship of the air, every being is considered divine (snakes, ants). Whatever dravya is available in his vicinity, is considered to be an offering in this yajna, thus there is clear accessibility to divinity, unlike in the abrahmic faiths where sadhya is not clearly defined. Abrahmic faiths are system centric believer and not sadhana centric seeker.

9.27 BG

For a Sanatana dharmi, in his avidya state, sin is conditional and circumstantial, hence there is no condemnation or eternal hell. The state of perfection may be delayed but never denied. Creation is a linear aspect unlike in Sanatana Dharma where it is cyclical and eternal (karma siddhanta and punarjanma).

Differences about Brahman

Everyone of the vedantic system-builders - Sri Shankara, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and others-has followed his own standpoint in his commentary of the Upanishads, bringing a mind illumined, directed by his own individual adhyatmik experience and interpreted all the passages to uphold his position and popularize the system of thought he expounded.[12] The relationship of Atman and Brahman is the primary basis of defining the various vedanta schools, for example, Advaita school is so named as it posits that Atman and Brahman are one and the same, while Dvaita school maintains that Atman and Brahman are distinctly two entities.

While fundamentally in agreement regarding the existence of Brahman various Vedantic schools differ as in following aspects

Key Differences of Brahman in Three Vedanta Sampradayas
Concept Advaita Dvaita Vishistadvaita
Concept of Brahman Nirguna (Impersonal) Saguna (Personal) Saguna (Personal)
Who is Brahman Attributeless without Name and Form Vishnu or Krishna is Supreme Deity Brahman or Purushottama
Real and Unreal Brahman is Real, Samsara is Unreal Universe and its components are Real with five-fold difference Both Brahman and Samsara are Real
Efficient cause of the Universe (effect) Cause and effect are one and the same Brahman Vishnu is the efficient cause of the Universe Vishnu is the efficient cause of the Universe
Relationship of Jivatma and Brahman Absolute Identity (Kevaladvaita) Absolute Distinction (Kevala Bheda) Two Separate entities where one controls the other but are in Unity (Visishitadvaita)
Origin of the Universe From Brahman through Maya Vishnu is the manifestor of the Universe Vishnu is the Creator
Realization Method Atma transcending Avidya Knowledge of Vishnu and Universe Bhakti leads to Brahman
Moksha Method Jnana that Jivatma and Paramatma are One Attainment of Vishnu through Vishnuprasada (grace) Attainment of Vishnu through Nityakainkarya

Advaita Vedanta (अद्वैतवेदान्तः) sampradaya totally dismisses the concept that Brahman, Atman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained by Sri Adi Shankaracharya and Advaita Bhashyas. Important postulates of Advaita include

  • Brahman is without attributes (Nirguna Brahman), and is Real; all else is unreal.
  • Atman (Jivatma) and Paramatma are the same without any difference.
  • The idea of difference between them arises from Avidya (ignorance, lack of yadartha jnana) and when Atma transcends Avidya, it brings about the realization of the All-ness and wholeness of the Atman as indicated by the vidya-sutra

    आत्मेत्येवोपासीतात्र ह्येते सर्व एकं भवन्ति । ātmetyevopāsītātra hyete sarva ekaṁ bhavanti । (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.7)[13]

  • The Universe springs from Brahman, just like hairs on a man's head; it is the work of Maya.
  • Cause and effect are one and the same (कार्यकारण-अभेदः) just like an aggregation of threads is seen in the form of a cloth.

As long as the Atma identifies itself with the Upadhis (vehicle of atma), it remains bound in Samsara, when it Knows Itself as Self, it becomes free from Samsara. For those who are not yet ready for this effort of Self Knowledge, ritual is not only desirable but also necessary. Those who reached the point where Atma only attracts them, Jnanam is enough and by Sadhana they achieve Brahman, the goal. However, a Jnani does not abstain from Karma or actions (similar as in Samkhya siddhanta), he best understands them and actively engages in them, being unattached to the results and not by the dictate of desire. Such a person is called Jivanmukta.

For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the conversation between Uddalaka and Shvetaketu. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cycle of birth and death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)[14]

The Dvaita Vedanta (द्वैतवेदान्तः) sampradaya upholds the distinctness of Paramatma from Jivatma both in material world and in Moksha. It teaches that Vishnu is the Supreme Deity and formed the Universe out of Prkriti which is already existing. Here the concept of Supreme (Brahman) is seen in Vishnu, who is the efficient cause of the Universe. It follows the Samkhya darshana way of describing the evolution and that Jiva travels on a adhyatmik journey to attain the Paramatma. Jiva attains Moksha in which it remains in Bhoga (भोगः । enjoyment of eternal bliss) with the Paramatma. The Jiva reaches one or other of the four conditions

  1. Sarupya (सारूप्यम् । Same form as the Divine Form)
  2. Salokya (सालोक्यम् । Residence in the same loka as the Divine Form eg : Vaikuntha)
  3. Sannidhya (सान्निध्यम् । Being in proximity to the Divine Form)
  4. Sayujyam (सायुज्यम् । Union with the Divine Form).

However, this union is not to be considered as one of identity of nature. (Page 33 of Reference[10]).

The Vishistadvaita Vedanta (विशिष्टाद्वैतवेदान्तः) sampradaya upholds separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । dissolution) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman. Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.[10]

Atma as Amsha of Brahma

Shvetasvatara Upanishad is one of the important texts that explains the difference between the Jivatma (variously called as Atman closely translated as individual soul) and Brahman. The upanishad first shows the distinction between the Individual Self (Jivatma) and the Supreme Self (Brahman) due to the limiting adjuncts in the observable state (empirical) and then reveals Amrtattva (immortality) as a consequence of the realization of That (supreme self):[15]

संयुक्तमेतत्क्षरमक्षरं च व्यक्ताव्यक्तं भरते विश्वमीशः । अनीशश्चात्मा बध्यते भोक्तृभावाज्ज्ञात्वा देवं मुच्यते सर्वपाशैः ॥ ८ ॥ (Shvet. Upan. 1.7)[16]

Ishvara nourishes this universe consisting of effect and cause, the Vyaktam (व्यक्तम् । manifested) and Avyaktam (अव्यक्तम् । Unmanifested) which are respectively the Ksharam (क्षरम् । mutable, destructible) and Aksharam (अक्षरम् । immutable, indestructible) which are mutually associated (संयुक्तम्). The individual Atman, which is not independent, becomes bound due to its sense of being the Bhoktr (भोक्तृभावात् । enjoyer); realizing the effulgent Self (supreme), it becomes freed from all bondages.

Simply put the Upanishad expresses the difference between the Atman and Brahman due to the limiting adjuncts (Atman is possessed of the individual body and organs and is not independent) therefore the Atman becomes free by realising the Brahman (who is unconditioned or without limiting adjuncts) through meditation (on the Supreme) with the help of His limiting adjuncts. Thus the Upanishad clarifies the standpoint of unity of the (individual) enjoyer and the (supreme) Self.[15]

The Puranas also reinforce the concept of Atman as distinct from the Brahman due to its attributes of Nature and the way to dissociate from them. According to Vishnudharmottara Purana, the individual Atman is imagined through ignorance. When that is dissipated the difference between the individual Atma and supreme Brahman vanishes to be sure. Visnupurana (6.7.96) also points to Avidya or ignorance that creates a difference - which (really) does not exist - between the Self and Brahman.

It may be pointed out that there exist different perspectives of various schools of Vedanta on Self and Brahman.

Bhagavadgita clearly ascertains the Amshatva (अंशत्वम्। being a part, a limb, a portion ) of Atma of the Supreme Self.

ममैवांशो जीवलोके जीवभूतः सनातनः। मनःषष्ठानीन्द्रियाणि प्रकृतिस्थानि कर्षति।।15.7।। (Bhag. Gita. 15.7)

Meaning : It is verily a part of Mine which, becoming the eternal individual atma in the region of living beings, attracts (to itself) the senses (and the organs) of which the mind is the sixth, and which abide in Nature.[17]

That individual self, whose nature has been described thus, though an everlasting part of Myself, becomes the 'bound individual self' in the world of living beings. Covered by ignorance in the form of a beginningless Karma, It attracts to Itself the five senses and the mind, which are located in the bodies of devatas, men etc., and which are particular transformations of Prakrti. Some parts of Myself (i.e., the selves), becoming free from ignorance (Avidya) in the aforesaid manner, remain in their own intrinsic nature.[18]

Parabrahman

Many texts mention the terms Parabrahman, Paramatma, Parashakti, Purushottama etc in denoting the entity who is all-pervading, all-knowing and all-blissful.

According to the Vaishnava vedantins, Purushottama denoting exemplary characteristics represents the Parabrahman. Jiva in the eternal state (Atman) maintaining the distinctness from Parabrahman, serves Him in Vaikuntha, after attaining the Sat-Chit-Ananda (which are again the characteristics of Purushottama). Jivas are in Unity with the Parabrahma in quality though different in quantity and they remain so even in the state of Moksha.

Advaita concept is that Jiva (bound with Upadhi, in conditional state) experiences distinctness from the eternal Parabraman due to Avidya. IT, that nameless, formless supreme entity called Parabrahman is the goal of a sadhaka engaged in the practice of Paravidya, (the Brahmavidya) knowing which is the Supreme Wisdom (Jnana) achieved through the paths laid down in the various texts, discussed through ages in the Upanishads and Brahmasutras. Here the Atman conditioned by the Upadhi is the same as Brahman or Parabrahman who is attributeless.[10]

Kaivalyopanishad summarizes the nature of Brahman as follows

मय्येव सकलं जातं मयि सर्वं प्रतिष्ठितम् । मयि सर्वं लयं याति तद्ब्रह्माद्वयमस्म्यहम् ॥ १९ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 19)

In me alone is everything born, in me does everything rest and in me is everything dissolved. I am that Brahman, advayam or secondless.

न पुण्यपापे मम नास्ति नाशो न जन्म देहेन्द्रियबुद्धिरस्ति । न भूमिरापो न च वह्निरस्ति न चानिलो मेऽस्ति न चाम्बरं च ॥ २३ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 23)

एवं विदित्वा परमात्मरूपं गुहाशयं निष्कलमद्वितीयम् । समस्तसाक्षिं सदसद्विहीनं प्रयाति शुद्धं परमात्मरूपम् ॥ २४ ॥ (Kaiv. Upan. 24)[19]

For Me there is neither earth, nor water, nor fire, nor air, nor ether. Thus realising the Paramatman, who lies in the cavity of the heart, who is without parts, and without a second, the Witness of all, beyond both existence and non-existence - one attains the Pure Paramatman Itself.[20]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Shabdakalpadruma (See ब्रह्म)
  2. ↑ Swami Madhavananda author of A Bird's-Eye View of the Upanishads (1958) The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 1 : The Early Phases (Prehistoric, Vedic and Upanishadic, Jaina and Buddhist). Calcutta : The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Pages 345-365)
  3. ↑ Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 45-46)
  4. ↑ Mundaka Upanishad (Complete)
  5. ↑ Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) With the Commentary of Sankaracarya. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama (Page 290)
  6. ↑ Nrsimha Uttarataapaniya Upanishad (Complete)
  7. ↑ Panchadasi (Prakarana 13 )
  8. ↑ Swami Swahananda (1967) Panchadasi of Sri Vidyaranya Swami (English Translation) Madras : Sri Ramakrishna Math (Pages 521-522)
  9. ↑ Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Adhyaya 2)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College
  11. ↑ Swami Madhavananda (1950 Third Edition) The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentary of Sankaracharya. Almora : Advaita Ashrama (Page 329)
  12. ↑ Swami Ghanananda author of The Dawn of Indian Philosophy (1958) The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 1 : The Early Phases (Prehistoric, Vedic and Upanishadic, Jaina and Buddhist). Calcutta : The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Pages 333-344)
  13. ↑ Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Adhyaya 1)
  14. ↑ Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya) Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 75-78)
  16. ↑ Shvetasvatara Upanishad (Adhyaya 1)
  17. ↑ Swami Gambhirananda's English Translation of Srimad Bhagavadgita along with Sri Sankaracharya's Sanskrit Commentary. (Pages 621-622)
  18. ↑ Swami Adidevananda's Translation of Srimad Bhagavadgita along with Sri Ramanujacharya's Commentary. (See Gitasupersite)
  19. ↑ Kaivalya Upanishad (Complete)
  20. ↑ The Kaivalya Upanishad Translated by Swami Madhavananda. Kolkata : Advaita Ashram
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