Changes

|Attributeless without Name and Form

|Attributeless without Name and Form

|Vishnu is Supreme Deity

|Vishnu is Supreme Deity

|Brahman or Vishnu

|Brahman or Narayana (Purushottama)

|-

|-

|Real and Unreal

|Real and Unreal

|Origin of the Universe

|Origin of the Universe

|From Brahman through Maya

|From Brahman through Maya

|Vishnu is the Creator

|Vishnu is the manifestor of the Universe

|Vishnu is the Creator

|Vishnu is the Creator

|-

|-

|Realization Method

|Realization Method

|Atma transcending Avidya

|Atma transcending Avidya

|Bhakti leads to Brahman

|Knowledge of Vishnu and Universe

|Bhakti leads to Brahman

|Bhakti leads to Brahman

|-

|-

==Schools of thought==

==Schools of thought==

===Vedanta===

===Vedanta===

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism.

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

====Advaita Vedanta====

====Advaita Vedanta====

{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}[[Advaita Vedanta]] espouses [[nondualism]]. ''Brahman'' is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name="jeffreybrodd">Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47</ref><ref name="barbarasca">Barbara Holdrege (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 241-242</ref><ref name="rdalal">Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}

 

Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name="jeffreybrodd">Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47</ref><ref name="barbarasca">Barbara Holdrege (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 241-242</ref><ref name="rdalal">Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>

The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

====Dvaita Vedanta====

====Dvaita Vedanta====

{{Vaishnavism}} Brahman of [[Dvaita]] is a concept similar to God in major world religions.<ref name="mmyers">Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 124-127</ref> Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.<ref name="mmyers" />

{{Vaishnavism}} Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

#Mitha-jada-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two insentients

#Mitha-jada-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two insentients

====Achintya Bheda Abheda====

====Achintya Bheda Abheda====

The [[Acintya Bheda Abheda]] philosophy is similar to [[Dvaitadvaita]] (differential [[monism]]). In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called [[jnana]]) of Absolute Truth, He is realized as impersonal Brahman, then as personal Brahman having eternal [[Vaikunta|Vaikuntha]] abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as [[Paramatma]] (by process of [[yoga]]-[[meditation]] on Supersoul, Vishnu-God in heart)&nbsp;– Vishnu ([[Narayana]], also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Vishnulokas (Vaikunthalokas), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by [[bhakti]]) as [[Bhagavan]], Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal, impersonal, or both).{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

The Acintya Bheda Abheda philosophy is similar to [[Dvaitadvaita]] (differential [[monism]]). In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called jnana) of Absolute Truth, He is realized as impersonal Brahman, then as personal Brahman having eternal Vaikuntha abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as Paramatma (by process of [[yoga]]-[[meditation]] on Supersoul, Vishnu-God in heart)&nbsp;– Vishnu ([[Narayana]], also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Vishnulokas (Vaikunthalokas), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by [[bhakti]]) as [[Bhagavan]], Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal, impersonal, or both).{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===Vaishnavism===

===Vaishnavism===

{{Main|Vaishnavism}}All [[Vaishnava]] schools are [[panentheistic]] and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an intermediate step of self-realization, but not [[Mukti]], or final liberation of complete God-realization through [[Bhakti Yoga]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Vishnu/Krishna; the universe and all other manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

{{Main|Vaishnavism}}

 

All Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an intermediate step of self-realization, but not Mukti, or final liberation of complete God-realization through Bhakti Yoga.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}  

 

Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Vishnu/Krishna; the universe and all other manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===Bhakti movement===

===Bhakti movement===

{{main|Bhakti movement}}The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman – ''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna''.<ref name="karen21">Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 21</ref> ''Nirguna'' Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.<ref name="jeaneanefxxvii">Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxvii-xxxiv</ref> ''Saguna'' Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.<ref name="jeaneanefxxvii" /> The two had parallels in the ancient panthestic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the [[Bhagavad Gita]].<ref name="karen21" /><ref name="fowlernirgunasaguna">Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 207-211</ref> It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from ''Nirguni'' knowledge-focus and other from ''Saguni'' love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.<ref name="fowlernirgunasaguna" /> ''Nirguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Jnana-shrayi'', or had roots in knowledge.<ref name="karen21" /> ''Saguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Prema-shrayi'', or with roots in love.<ref name="karen21" /> In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.<ref name="fowlernirgunasaguna" />

{{main|Bhakti movement}}

Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement [[theosophy]], underwent more profound development with the ideas of [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism, particularly those of [[Adi Shankara]]'s Advaita Vedanta, [[Ramanuja]]'s Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and [[Madhvacharya]]'s Dvaita Vedanta.<ref name="jeaneanefxxvii" /> Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were ''Sandilya Bhakti Sutra'' – a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and ''Narada Bhakti Sutra'' – a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.<ref>Jessica Frazier and Gavin Flood (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 113-115</ref>

The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman – ''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna''. ''Nirguna'' Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality. ''Saguna'' Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality. The two had parallels in the ancient panthestic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita. It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from ''Nirguni'' knowledge-focus and other from ''Saguni'' love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita. ''Nirguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Jnana-shrayi'', or had roots in knowledge. In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.

''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name="davidlorenzenns">David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2</ref> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name="davidlorenzenns" /> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name="karen21" />

 

''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name="davidlorenzenns">David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2</ref> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name="davidlorenzenns" /> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name="karen21">Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 21</ref>

==Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas==

==Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas==

[[Brahma]] is distinct from Brahman.<ref name="BondKunin2003p231">{{cite book|author1=Helen K. Bond |author2=Seth D. Kunin|author3=Francesca Murphy |title=Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HokZ5UW5fZsC&pg=PA231 |year=2003|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9914-7 |pages=231 }}</ref> Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name="pandeyp40">{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Bharat's Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |pages=40 }}</ref> who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.<ref name="Doniger1999p437">{{cite book|author=Wendy Denier|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |pages=437 }}</ref> In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, thereafter a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again.<ref name="pandeyp40" /><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |pages=330 }}</ref>

Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality,<ref name="BondKunin2003p231">{{cite book|author1=Helen K. Bond |author2=Seth D. Kunin|author3=Francesca Murphy |title=Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HokZ5UW5fZsC&pg=PA231 |year=2003|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9914-7 |pages=231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=William Sweet |title=Approaches to Metaphysics |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cyCme74cZ1IC |year=2006|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2182-4|pages=145–147 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=H. James Birx |title=Encyclopedia of Anthropology |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8m_vBQAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6536-0 |pages=1279 }}</ref> that, states Doniger, is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence.<ref name="Doniger1999p437">{{cite book|author=Wendy Denier|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |pages=437 }}</ref> It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /> It is a gender neutral abstract concept.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /><ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |year=1998|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10260-4 |pages=256 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush |author2=Catherine Robinson |author3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |pages=114–115 }}</ref> The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads;<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Craig|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lS2cSqwMtf8C |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-18707-7 |pages=1–4 }}</ref> while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Julius Lipner |title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC |year=1994|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05181-1 |pages=43–44 }}</ref> In the Puranic and the Epics literature, deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently. Some texts suggest that god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism),<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |pages=147 }}</ref> others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism),<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |pages=125 }}</ref> yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism),<ref name="kinsley137">{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=137 }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name="kinsley137" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205-206 }}</ref> Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna''{{refn|group=note|representation with face and attributes)<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref>}} Brahman is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> is Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=171 }}</ref> or is Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=136 }}</ref> respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=William K. Mahony |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |pages=13–14, 187 }}</ref>

 

Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality,<ref name="BondKunin2003p231" /><ref>{{cite book|author=William Sweet |title=Approaches to Metaphysics |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cyCme74cZ1IC |year=2006|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2182-4|pages=145–147 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=H. James Birx |title=Encyclopedia of Anthropology |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8m_vBQAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6536-0 |pages=1279 }}</ref> that, states Doniger, is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /> It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /> It is a gender neutral abstract concept.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /><ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |year=1998|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10260-4 |pages=256 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush |author2=Catherine Robinson |author3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |pages=114–115 }}</ref> The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads;<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Craig|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lS2cSqwMtf8C |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-18707-7 |pages=1–4 }}</ref> while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Julius Lipner |title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC |year=1994|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05181-1 |pages=43–44 }}</ref> In the Puranic and the Epics literature, deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently. Some texts suggest that god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism),<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |pages=147 }}</ref> others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism),<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |pages=125 }}</ref> yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism),<ref name="kinsley137">{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=137 }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name="kinsley137" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205-206 }}</ref> Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna''{{refn|group=note|representation with face and attributes)<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref>}} Brahman is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> is Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=171 }}</ref> or is Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=136 }}</ref> respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=William K. Mahony |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |pages=13–14, 187 }}</ref>

==References==

==References==

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