Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)

Ayurveda and Darshana Shastras are the contemporary systems of knowledge developed in Bharatawarsha. Various concepts and theories found in Ayurveda and Darshanas have similarities. Darshanas represent the Schools of Hindu Philosophy and offer methods to acquire knowledge of the elements in this universe. Since Purusha, the Object of discussion in Ayurveda, is a part of this universe, many theories and concepts discussed in Darshanas are applicable to Ayurvedeeya system of knowledge as well.

परिचयः Introduction

Ayurveda Prayaojana is to maintain the health and well being of Purusha to confer longevity. While the Darshana shastras discuss about the nature of external world and its relationship with individual soul. Darshanas also provide insights about goal of life and means by which one can attain the Goal.. Darshanas form the part of Indian philosophy and act as the tools which enable the apprehension of facts pertaining to the external world. Since Ayurveda is a system of knowledge about life and, Darshanas provide means to apprehend the facts or obtain the knowledge; Ayurveda adopted some theories and concepts described in Darshanas as tools to facilitate learning for the seeker. The object of discussion in Darshanas is mainly the cosmos and all elements involved into it, which is totally different from the object and purpose of Ayurveda. Thus, Ayurveda accepts these theories within the frame of reference of Ayurveda without deviating from its basic concepts, object and scope.

Among all the Darshanas, Ayurveda is interconnected with Sankhya, Vaisheshika, Yoga, Nyaya, Poorva mimansa, Uttara mimansa (or Vedanta) darshanas in general. There are also references where Ayurveda seems to have similarity with theories proposed by Bouddha darshana, Jaina darshana and Charvaka darshana at rare places.

Sankhya darshana and Ayurveda

Ayurveda has adopted many theories proposed by Sankhya darshana indicating considerable influence of this school of Indian Philosophy on Ayurveda.

Following are the few examples:

Pramanas

Pramanas- Pramanas are the means to acquire the correct knowledge of any object in this universe. Pratyaksha (Direct perception by senses), Anumana (Inference drawn on the basis of well established relationships that are previously known to the individual) and Aptopadesha (Knowledge obtained from trusted sources like classical treatises, Gurus etc) are the 3 such ways or means proposed by Sankhyas to acquire knowledge . Ayurveda has accepted all 3 Pramanas as the tools for obtaining the knowledge about rogas and it is clearly indicated in Charaka Samhita Vimanasthana as follows,

त्रिविधम् खलु रोगविषेशविग्यानम् भवति- तद् यथा आप्तोपदेशः, प्रत्यक्षं, अनुमानं चेति।– (Char. Samh. Vima. 4.3)

Meaning: There are 3 means to acquire knowledge about rogas (Diseases) viz. Aptopadesha , Pratyaksha and Anumana.

Types of Misery

Sankhya darshana lays greater emphasis on elimination of physical and mental pain to achieve the liberation. For this reason, 3 types of misery are described by Sankhyas namely, Adhibhoutik, Adhidaivik & Adhyatmik. The entire knowledge in Ayurveda is focused on the purusha, the diseases affecting Purusha and the measures to provide health and well-being to Purusha by eliminating these diseases. Ayurveda considers Vikara or Wyadhi (meaning diseases) as Dukkha and thus, Sushruta Samhita has classified diseases on the basis of 3 types of Dukkha or miseries as described in Sanskhya darshana.

प्रागभिहितं तद्दु:खसंयोगाः व्याधयः इति। तच्च दुःखं त्रिविधं- आध्यात्मिकम्, आधिदैविकम्, आधिभौतिकमिति।- (Sush. Samh. Soot. 24/4) सुश्रुतसंहिता सूत्रस्थानम् २४/४

Meaning: It is already mentioned that Vyadhi (Diseases) are (manifested as) the combination of Dukkhas (miseries). That Dukkha (misery) is of 3 types (and thus the diseases are of 3 types as follows) Adhyatmik, Adhidaivik and Adhibhoutik.

Srishti utpatti Siddhanta and realms of evolution

Ayurveda has described the origin of Purusha at the very beginning of the section, which deals with birth of a child, his growth and development. All these subjects are described in relevant sections in Ayurvedic classics. The classics also describe in brief, the accepted views amidst the various prevalent opinions about the origin of cosmos and origin of life as described in other shastras like Darshanas. Ayurvedic classics have adopted the Srishti utpatti Siddhanta (The theory of origin of cosmos), 8 Prakruti, 16 Vikaras described by Sankhyas. Acharya Charaka and Acharya Sushruta have described the Srishti utpatti as follows,

जायते बुढ्हेरव्यक्ताद्बुद्ध्या अह्म् इति मन्यन्ते। परं खादीन्यहङ्कारादुत्पद्यन्ते यथाक्रमम्॥– (Char. Samh. 1.63-69)

Meaning:

अव्यक्तं महानहङ्कारः पन्चतन्मात्राणि श्चेत्यष्टौ प्रकृतयः शेषाः षोडश विकाराः। - (Sush. Samh. 1.1-9)

Meaning:

Parinamavada

Sankhya Darshana has proposed a theory for evolution of matter which is known as ‘Parinamavada’. This theory advocates the process of evolution through transformation of properties. Ayurveda has adopted the theory of Parinamana (Transformation) in different backgrounds like Dhatuparinamana (Nourishment and development of Dhatus through transformation process), Vipaka (Transformation of original Rasa or taste into other after the process of digestion) etc.

जाठरेणाग्निनायोगात् यदुदेति रसान्तरम्। रसानां परिणामान्ते स विपाकः इति स्मृतः॥– (Asht. Hrud. 9.20)

Meaning: The transformation in the original Rasa of the substance after undergoing the process of digestion by Agni (is called as Parinaman) and the Rasa obtained at the end of this Parinaman (transformation) is called as 'Vipaka'.

This similarity in the acceptance of basic process of Parinaman behind the process of obtaining new or modified attributes in a particular substance (due to the Agni symbolic of fire element) indicates influence of Sanskhya darshana on Ayurveda.

Satkaryavada

It is a theory postulated in Sankhya philosophy while describing the Srushti utpatti from Avyakta Tatva. Satkaryavada states that the Karya (Effect) has its presence in Karana (Cause) in unmanifested form. Once the Karya is manifested, the Karana appears subtle. There has to be some karana for any manifested Karya. This theory also states that the Cause and effect are similar in nature. The Samanya Vishesha siddhanta postulated by Ayurveda could be considered as the derivation of the Satkaryavada proposed by Sankhyas which states that, similarity is the reason for increase (in body tissues and other elements) while difference in nature leads to depreciation.

Charaka Samhita clearly mentions terms Karya and Karana in the context of 10 fold assessment of disease and the diseased, for success treatments in practice of Ayurveda. In Ayurveda, ‘Karya’ is ‘establishing the Dhatusamya’ (balanced state of body elements) while the Karanas are said to be 6 padarthas namely Samanya, Vishesha, Dravya, Guna, Karma and Samavaya. The expansion and application of Satkaryavada in Ayurveda can also be found while describing the cause and effect relationship between defects present in male & female gametes and anomalies in the fetus.

सर्वदा सर्वभावानां सामान्यं व्रूद्धिकारणम्। ह्रासहेतुर्विशेषश्च, प्रवृत्तिरुभयस्य तु॥- (Char. Samh. 1.1.45)

Meaning: Analogy or similarity is the reason for increase in existing substances in body while the reason for depreciation or decrease is the dissimilarity or difference.

Vaisheshika Darshanam and Ayurveda

Sankhya and Vaisheshika Darshanas have influence on most of the shastras developed in ancient time. Ayurveda can not be the exception to this. Though Vaisheshika and Nyaya Darshana are usually considered as allied shastras having most of the theories in common, there are few concepts unique to both of them and their adoption in Ayurveda.

Shat padarthas

Vaisheshika darshana describes ‘Padarthas’ for the first time. These padarthas are the elements or substances comprising the universe. They are 6 in number and all of them have been mentioned in Charaka Samhita as ‘Shatpadartha’ but in a slightly different sequence relevant to the scope and subject of Ayurveda. They are Samanya (Similarity), Vishesha (Difference), Guna (Attribute), Dravya (Substance), Karma (Activity), Samavaya (Association). (Cha. Soo 1/9)

Dravyani

Dravya is one of the 6 padarthas mentioned above. Ayurveda describes same 9 Dravyas as described by Vaisheshika darshana. They are 5 elements (Panchamahabhutas), Atman, Manas, Kala (Time) and Disha (Direction).

Paramanu vada

Vaisheshikas are the pioneers in proposing the concept of Paramanu which is regarded as the indestructible part of the substance. These extremely minute parts called Paramanu have also been mentioned in Ayurveda while describing the body constituents. Charaka Samhita refers the tiny avayavas in Body as ‘Paramanu’ inspired from Vaisheshikas. (Cha. Sha….)

Pakajotpatti siddhanta

Vaishehsikas support Asatkaryavada, which means that the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect is a new beginning, a fresh creation. All physical things are produced by the multiple combinations of Paramanu commonly referred as atoms. Creation thus means the combination of atoms in different proportions and destruction means the dissolution of such combinations. The material cause of the universe is the eternal atoms that are neither produced nor destroyed. It is only the atomic combinations which are produced and which get destroyed.. To support this theory, Vaisheshikas have accepted the Pakajotpatti Siddhanta. In Pakajotpatti it is stated that Paramanus of a Dravya, under the influence of the heat, undergo a process called ‘Paka’ (ripening, cooking) and attain a different configuration of association leading to the development of a substance, with different properties than the source material. This concept is fundamental to the theory of Vipaka in Ayurveda. Vipaka is the taste (Property- Guna) of a Food or herb (dravya in context of Darshana) developed after going through the process of Pachana (Digestion or metabolism taking place under the influence of Agni, a form of heat element inside the body). This Vipaka is different from the original taste (Rasa- Guna) of Food or herb. This transformation in inherent properties of dravya mentioned in Ayurveda, is in line with the original ‘Pakajotpatti Siddhanta’ proposed by Vaisheshikas. Thus, Ayurveda has accepted theories within frame of reference of Ayurveda from various Darshanas and developed its own theories like 'Vipaka'.

Pramanas

Ayurveda has accepted all 3 pramanas viz. Pratyaksha, Anumana and Shabda as mentioned by Vaisheshikas.

त्रिविधम् खलु रोगविषेशविग्यानम् भवति- तद् यथा आप्तोपदेशः, प्रत्यक्षं, अनुमानं चेति।– (Char. Samh. Vima. 4.3)

Meaning: There are 3 means to acquire knowledge about rogas (Diseases) viz. Aptopadesha , Pratyaksha and Anumana.

As mentioned earlier, Ayurveda accepts all these Pramanas as means to obtain knowledge of life.

Acharya Charaka mentions that there are limitations in obtaining the knowledge of all the elements and process happening inside the body using 5 senses of a physician. Hence knowledge obtained through 5 senses is limited whereas the knowledge that can be obtained using the method of inference is huge. This emphasises the importance of use of Anumana pramana.

pratyaksham alpam analapam hi apratyaksham..

While diagnosing and treating various diseases, Ayurveda advises a Vaidya to make use of his 5 senses to gain knowledge of the state of diseases and a diseased. In ancient times when the technology was not developed and the diagnosis was not done on the basis of laboratory reports, Pratyaksha (Direct perception) and Anumana (Inference) were the only ways to assess and evaluate. Hence many important parameters of health were assessed on the basis of Anumana Pramana. Few examples of such evaluation include assessment of Strength of individual on the basis of his capacity to exercise, Assessment of strength of Agni (Indicative of digestive power in human body) on the basis of one's ability to digest certain types of foods etc. Thus, use of Anumana Pramana is considered crucial for diagnosis, assessment, evaluation and treatment in Ayurveda.

Nyaya Darshana and Ayurveda

The word ‘Nyaya’ in Nyaya darshana is defined as, ‘Pramaanaihi artha parikshanam nyayam’, which means that Nyaya is the term used to denote the methods of investigating valid knowledge of anything with the use of Pramamas. Pramanas are used as tools to assess and acquire the knowledge. Hence, Nyaya darshana give tremendous importance to the Pramanas.

Pramanas

The Naiyayikas (the Nyaya scholars) accepted four valid means of obtaining valid knowledge (pramana) - pratyakṣa Pramana - perception, anumāna Pramana inference, Shabda Pramana meaning Verbal authority and upamāna Pramana- comparison and śabda , word/testimony of reliable sources. Ayurveda Samhita mention all these 4 pramanas as means of knowledge. Upamana pramana is the tool for acquiring knowledge through the use of comparison and analogy. Such use of analogy and comparison is considered as a valid means of conditional knowledge, as it helps the individual to identify or gain knowledge of something that is not perceivable to his five senses directly at that point of time. (James Lochtefeld, "Upamana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 721) Ayurveda has made use of this at numerous places like while describing the body structure, organs, processes, nature of pain in a disease etc. (Cha. Vi.8/42)

Pundareek sadrusham hrudayam..  (Su. Shaa

Haridrabh mootrapraveutti

While describing various types of vedanas – Kartananvat, todavat, musthi hata

Tadvidya Sambhasha and Vadamarga padas

In line with their objective of assessing and analysing the means of acquiring valid knowledge of any subject, Naiyayikas have discussed methods like Tadvidya sambhasha, Vadamargas, Tantrayuktis etc. Acharya Charaka encourages a Bhishak to interact with the other Bhishak or group of them. This discussion is termed as Sambhasha. Acharya Charaka advocates the participation of Bhishak in such Sambhashas in order to promote advancement of knowledge, skills, clarifying doubts, generating new ideas, recognising the hidden meaning of the verses mentioned in brief and thus enhancing the understanding of a particular topic. A methodical approach to discus in such sambhashas has also been mentioned by describing 44 Vadamarga padas, the concept adopted from Nyaya Darshana.

Karya abhinirvruttikara Ghatakas

Charaka Samhita Vimanasthana describes 10 types of important factors that constitute or lead to the successful treatment. These 10 factors are Kaarana, Karana, KAryayoni, Karya, KAryaphala, Anubandha, Desha, Kala, Pravrutti and Upaya. Dhatusamya has been stated to be the Karya in Ayurveda. All 10 factors mentioned above are considered as the components of successful treatment. All these 10 factors are adopted from Nyaya Darshana wherein Naiyayikas (The Nyaya scholars) have described them as the 10 factors helping in accomplishing any kind of Karya. Charaka says, if one proceeds for any action after knowing all these 10 factors well, he certainly obtains the desired fruit and subsequent benefit without any obstacles.  Thus he advices that, every physician willing to take up any action towards treating the disease should examine these 10 factors in context of Ayurveda beforehand and further also provides details regarding each factor and their assessment methods. This methodical approach towards the diagnosis, assessment and action suggested by Charaka represents one more Nyaya darshana theory accepted in Ayurveda in the frame of reference of Ayurveda. (Cha.VI 8/68)

Tantrayukti

Ayurveda is one of the Shastras offering the knowledge regarding specific topic and this knowledge if offered through various scriptures.  Initially the knowledge of Ayurveda was transferred through oral tradition. Later as the transfer of knowledge continued various scholars composed the treatises like Agnivesha Samhita, Sushruta Samhita. These scholars composed these treatises in a specific manner. They used methodical tools named ‘Tantrayukti’ originally described by Nyaya Darshana to compose the theory in treatises. Thus it is important to understand these tools or Tantrayuktis in order to interpret and thoroughly understand the shastra. Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Ashtanga Hrudaya are the major treatises referred in Ayurveda and all of them have made use of Tantrayuktis provided by Nyaya darshana to compose the texts. (Ref)

Poorva Mimansa and Ayurveda

The main source of authority in regard to Mimamsa is Jaimini's Mimamsa-Sutra. Jaimini does not believe in Moksha. He believes in the existence of Svarga (heaven) attainable through Karma or sacrifice.The Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini give a detailed description of the different sacrifices and their purposes, the doctrine of Apurva, and also some philosophical propositions.

Poorva mimansa is the school of philosophy belonging to Darshana shastras, which believes in the role of actions performed during one’s lifetime. These actions mainly in the form of rituals like Ygyas, yagas performed by an individual are believed to leave some impact on his life. Thus, the proponents of Poorva mimansa believe in engaging human beings in rituals that will help in creating good karma. Performing Yagyas, yagas is called as Karmakanda which is regarded as the mode of achieving moksha by Poorva mimansakas. The basis of advocating such KArmakanda for Moksha prapti is that, Poorva Mimansa Darshana believes in the entity called 'Apurv’ which develops as a consequence of actions performed by an individual in this world and in the current life. It is thus appraised that this school of philosophy also believes the correlated theories like past life, concepts like Pap, Punyakarma (virtuous actions), Hell and heaven.

There are some subjects in Ayurveda which appear to be based on similar theory. Ayurveda is unique in its approach while describing the types of treatment like DAivavyapashraya Chikitsa.

This category of chikitsa includes performing particular Yagyas, Yagas, chanting Mantras, holding precious gems or stones to eliminate the possible effect of Karma of present or past life, as a treatment. Ayurveda calls this incomprehensible effect of past life as ‘Daiva’ and provides the means to eliminate its ill effects on body manifested in the form of disease.

Poorvajanmakrutam papam vyadhirupen badhyate….

While describing the categories of diseases, Acharyas have considered diseases caused as a result of probable effect of karma of past life under Adhidaivika Vyadhi. And the methods to treat such type of diseases have been described which include performing Yagyas, chanting mantras etc. Thus, it follows that Ayurveda accepts the theory of positive effects of performing karmakanda/ Yagyas for elimination of ill effects of karma within the scope of Ayurveda to achieve the ultimate objective ‘Ayu’ and good health.

Vedanta Darshana and Ayurveda

Maharsi vyasa is recognized as the expounder of this system and sankaracharya is the unanimous professor and preceptor of Vedanta darsana.

Various references available in charka samhita and other ayurvedic literature reflect that Vedanta had played some important role in influencing the metaphysical thinking in ayurveda.

‘Lokapurusha nyaya’ is one of the fundamental principles of Ayurveda. It states that, whatever is present inside the Purusha is there in the Universe and vice versa. In other words, Purusha reflect the mini cosmos inside him hence there exists great similarity between the elements and functions of cosmos and a living being. While describing this Acharya Charaka says that,

yawanta loke bhava vishesha tawnta purushe

yawanta purushe tawanta loke (Cha sharira, 5/3)

Meaning: whatever existing constituents are present in universe, the same are present in the Purusha; similarly, whatever existing constituents form Purusha, can be observed in the universe.

Further Acharya Charaka also provides a list of constituents of Purusha and Loka (Universe) which are similar or display congruence or resemblance. (Cha. Sharir. Purushavichaya sharira)

This theory of man as an epitome of universe accepted by Ayurveda is enunciated by Vedanta Darshana. Advaita Vedanta’s non-dualistic approach believes that the whole universe is in himself and he is in the whole universe.  According to Acharya Charaka, the ‘Brahma’ mentioned in Vedanta is present as ‘Antaratma’ in the Purusha commonly referred as the consciousness or soul. this darsana also declares that only Bramha is true and exists while the world is false and non existant and the jiva living in a physical living body in only the bramha and nothing else

There are few other similarities between Ayurveda and Vedanta. They can be enlisted as follows;

1.     Panchikarana siddhanta described while explaining the the stages in Srushti utpatti.

2.     Bhutantara praveshakrut gunas- theory that states the

3.     Jivatma

4.     The concept of Moksha

5.     The ways to attain the Moksha

In this way Ayurveda is closely related to Vedanta Darshana and the metaphysicial thinking in Ayurveda is influenced by Vedanta to a large extent.

Yoga Darshana and Ayurveda

Yoga darshana is expounded by Acharya Patanjali and it is intimately allied to Samkhya. The Six Darshanas discuss about the Jivatma to reach the goal of Mokhsa. The term ‘Yoga’ literally means ‘Union’. Here it refers to the union of jivatma and Paramatma. It is believed that this union can result only if the tendancy of Manas towards sensual pleasures is a warranted. Therefore, Yoga darshana describes various methods, guidelines and practices to control this outward drive of Manas and teaches one to focus on individual’s inner self to hasten the spiritual growth required for Moksha.

For rest of the topics Yoga mostly accepts the postulates of Samkhya with the only difference that ‘Yoga’ accepts the 26^th additional principle named ‘Ishwara’. Thus, this system is also called seswara samkhya darsana.

Patanjali advocates eight important parts of yoga viz,

1. yama(moral codes) ,
2. niyama(moral conducts),
3. asana (posture of the body),
4. pranayama (control of breath),
5. pratyahara (withdrawal of senses from their objects),
6. dhyana (meditation),
7. dharna (Retention), and
8. Samadhi (trance of union with divine).

these 8 parts constitute Ashtanga Yoga.

Ayurveda and yoga both are practical and applied science. Since yogic practices offer measures to achieve superior mental as well as physical health to facilitate smooth execution of further complex steps like Dharana, Dhyan and Samadhi, they are adopted by Ayurveda as well. E.g Acharya Charaka mentions the ‘Vayu nigraha’ i.e. control over Vayu as one of the methods to channelize the energy of Vayu responsible for development of diseases. This control can be achieved through ‘Pranayama’.

Other concepts from Ayurveda elaborated on similar line like Yoga can be listed as follows;

Ashta siddhi: eight super powers of yogis salvation and means of attainment of moksa have been described in detail in ayurvedic texts with different names.

Pramanas

Nidra

Smruti

Abhyasa