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Line 98: − === Distinction between Hrday (हृदयम्) and Manas (मनः) ===+ − − + − One of the qualities of Mind is that it is volatile, turbulent, obstinate and restless, characterized by "chanchalatva", its control is as difficult as the control of wind.<blockquote>चञ्चलं हि मन: कृष्ण प्रमाथि बलवद्दृढम् | तस्याहं निग्रहं मन्ये वायोरिव सुदुष्करम् || 34|| (Bhag. Gita. 6.33)</blockquote>Not only was mind important in individual life, its contribution to social well-being was also recognized. The very last mantra of the Rigveda concludes with the celebrated prayer which emphasizes the psychological concord in social life:<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.191.4)</blockquote>Meaning: May our resolutions be uniform and our hearts united; May our minds be one, that we all live well together.<ref name=":2" />+ Line 147:
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Ancient Indian Psychology (भारतीय मनोविज्ञानम्) (view source)
Revision as of 19:35, 22 March 2022
, 19:35, 22 March 2022adding content
# Shiva sankalpa sukta in Yajurveda
# Shiva sankalpa sukta in Yajurveda
# Understanding the power of the Self in Kena Upanishad
# Understanding the power of the Self in Kena Upanishad
# The four states of Consciousness in Mandukya Upanishad
# The four [[states of Consciousness]] in Mandukya Upanishad
# [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|Panchakoshas]] described in the Taittriya Upanishad
# [[Panchakosha (पञ्चकोषाः)|Panchakoshas]] described in the Taittriya Upanishad
Firstly, the term "mind" is not a suitable translation for "manas" as is the case with many other concepts expressed in Sanatana Dharma. The term 'mind' is limited to cognition, whereas 'manas' captures cognition, emotion, and behaviour. However, in this article, manas is loosely translated as mind. Mind has been conceived to be the functional element of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] (Soul or Self) in the Vedas.<ref name=":6">Bhawuk, Dharm P.S. ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' Springer Publications. </ref>
Firstly, the term "mind" is not a suitable translation for "manas" as is the case with many other concepts expressed in Sanatana Dharma. The term 'mind' is limited to cognition, whereas 'manas' captures cognition, emotion, and behaviour. However, in this article, manas is loosely translated as mind. Mind has been conceived to be the functional element of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] (Soul or Self) in the Vedas.<ref name=":6">Bhawuk, Dharm P.S. ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' Springer Publications. </ref>
In the Vedas, the Rig and Yajurvedas, prayers or stutis light up the inner world of a person with noble thoughts. It has been mentioned that thoughts determine facial appearance, and influence the expression; thoughts can be purified through mantras. Such purified thoughts influence the natural instincts, thus preventing mental imbalance and pain.<ref name=":4">Gautam, Shiv (1999) ''Mental health in ancient India and its relevance to modern psychiatry.'' Indian Journal of Psychiatry 41, 1, 5--18</ref>
In the Vedas, the Rig and Yajurvedas, prayers or stutis light up the inner world of a person with noble thoughts. It has been mentioned that thoughts determine facial appearance, and influence the expression; thoughts can be purified through mantras. Such purified thoughts influence the natural instincts, thus preventing mental imbalance and pain.<ref name=":4">Gautam, Shiv (1999) ''Mental health in ancient India and its relevance to modern psychiatry.'' Indian Journal of Psychiatry 41, 1, 5--18</ref> It should be noted that while thoughts are reflected on the organs of the body, Manas itself has no specific organ located in the body, but consists only in its functions.<ref name=":2" />
==== Concepts of Manas in Rigveda ====
==== Concepts of Manas in Rigveda ====
The famous Gayatri Mantra in the Rigveda (3.62.10) which is also present in the Yajurveda, is the essence of the Vedas. The prayer is rendered as follows:<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>''"We meditate upon that adorable efflungence of the resplendent vivifier, Savitr (Sun); May he stimulate our intellects"''</blockquote>In this mantra, mans asks, not for happiness or riches, but for a keen intellect and '''for enlightenment'''. It embodies in the form of a prayer, the highest aspiration of a man to come into contact with the universal consciousness.
The famous Gayatri Mantra in the Rigveda (3.62.10) which is also present in the Yajurveda, is the essence of the Vedas. The prayer is rendered as follows:<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>''"We meditate upon that adorable efflungence of the resplendent vivifier, Savitr (Sun); May he stimulate our intellects"''</blockquote>In this mantra, mans asks, not for happiness or riches, but for a keen intellect and '''for enlightenment'''. It embodies in the form of a prayer, the highest aspiration of a man to come into contact with the universal consciousness.
Another case of the famous allegory of two birds indicates the recognition of '''two aspects of personality''', one the bodily aspect eager to satisfy materialistic needs or bhoganubhava, while the other is the enlightened aspect of human personality, who as a passive spectator is unaffected by the worldly experience.
Another case of the famous allegory of two birds indicates the recognition of '''two aspects of personality''', one the bodily aspect eager to satisfy materialistic needs or bhoganubhava, while the other is the enlightened aspect of human personality, who as a passive spectator is unaffected by the worldly experience. <blockquote>द्वा सु॑प॒र्णा स॒युजा॒ सखा॑या समा॒नं वृ॒क्षं परि॑ षस्वजाते । तयो॑र॒न्यः पिप्प॑लं स्वा॒द्वत्त्यन॑श्नन्न॒न्यो अ॒भि चा॑कशीति ॥२०॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.164.20)</blockquote>According to Sayanacharya, the two birds refer to the individual Self and the Supreme Being dwelling in one body.
द्वा सु॑प॒र्णा स॒युजा॒ सखा॑या समा॒नं वृ॒क्षं परि॑ षस्वजाते । तयो॑र॒न्यः पिप्प॑लं स्वा॒द्वत्त्यन॑श्नन्न॒न्यो अ॒भि चा॑कशीति ॥२०॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.164.20)
According to Sayanacharya, the two birds refer to the individual Self and the Supreme Being dwelling in one body.
==== Concepts of Manas in Yajurveda ====
==== Concepts of Manas in Yajurveda ====
==== Concepts of Manas in Upanishads ====
==== Concepts of Manas in Upanishads ====
Significant mention and discussion about mind, its states qualities etc important upanishads which describe mind include the Chandogya, Svetashvatara, Brhadaranyaka, Kena and Mundaka Upanishads.
Significant mention and discussion about mind, its states, qualities etc is found in important upanishads such as the Chandogya, Svetashvatara, Brhadaranyaka, Katha, Kena and Mundaka Upanishads.
Kathopanishad declares the Self conjoined with the sense organs and manas (mind) is the experiencer (bhokta). The mind is superior to the sense-organs and the buddhi (intellect) is superior to the mind.
==== Concepts of Manas in Bhagavadgita ====
Bhagavad Gita is considered to be the simplified and condensed form of the Vedas and Upanishads. It has one of the earliest written descriptions of anxiety and depression as seen in Arjuna and also describes the several aspects of psychotherapy.<ref name=":5" /> Manas appears in many places in the Bhagavadgita (1.30, 2.55 & 60 & 67, 3.40, 3.42, 5.19, 6: 12, 14, 25, 26, 34, 35; 7.4, 8.12, 10.22, 11.45, 12.2 & 8, 15.7 & 9, 17.11 & 16, 18.33). In the first adhyaya we see that Arjuna expressed '''confusion of manas''', and so by extension, it can also be stated that manas can also see without confusion or see things clearly. In the second adhyaya we see that Manas is characterized as the '''seat of all desires'''. Shloka 2.60 indicates that the '''sense-organs work through the manas''', and they have a reciprocal relationship. Shloka 2.67 indicates that '''prajna (or buddhi) resides in the manas''', and that manas can get captured by the sense that it is using or is associated with. In the third adhyaya the '''relationship between manas with desires''' is explained. In shloka 3.41, Krishna explains to Arjuna the hierarchy of the that the five senses are said to be superior to the body, whereas the manas is considered superior to the senses, buddhi is said to be superior to manas, and the atman is superior to even buddhi. <blockquote>इन्द्रियाणि पराण्याहुरिन्द्रियेभ्यः परं मनः । मनसस्तु परा बुद्धिर्यो बुद्धेः परतस्तु सः ॥ (Bhag. Gita. 3.41) </blockquote>Thus, '''manas is above the body and senses''', which is also captured in the Indian conceptualization of self where manomaya is more subtle than the annamaya and pranamaya selves. But more subtle than the manomaya self are vijnanmaya and Anandamaya selves. Thus, manas stands in the middle of the five-level concept of self and thus is an intermediary in understanding the Atman.<ref name=":6" />
Having a '''balanced manas or equanimity''' is a very important aspect for mental health explained in shloka 5.19 for those whose manas is established in equanimity have in effect established themselves in brahman. This characteristic helps one understand the effects of rage, anger, greed, fear on manas and deal with situations in life with the required equanimity. The essence of the sixth adhyaya is that manas can be controlled by training it to '''practice dhyanayoga'''. In shlokas 24 and 25 of the sixth adhyaya, the role and state of manas in dhyana is captured, and the role of '''buddhi in taming the manas''' through practice and detachment is established.<ref name=":6" />
In the eleventh adhyaya, we find that '''manas is stated to be the center for emotions like fear'''. Here we find that manas can mean both mind and heart in English depending on the context. Hence literal translation of manas as mind is not appropriate. Another important concept of manas is described in the seventeenth adhyaya; the tapas of manas. The '''tapas of manas''' is defined as one in which one keeps the manas happy, kind, silent, self-controlled, and pure. What is important to note that actions, speech, and manas provide the criteria for defining concepts like tapas, yajna, dhriti or determination (18.33), and so forth, and the one done with the manas is considered to be of the highest level. For example, nonviolence is to be practiced at three levels, in actions, in speech, and in the manas, in ascending order. Therefore, it is not enough to practice nonviolence, truthfulness, or any other virtue in actions and speech but also at the highest level in the manas. As noted earlier, manas cannot be translated as mind without losing significant aspects of its meaning. For example, saying that nonviolence is practiced in the mind does not do justice, because when it is done with the manas, it includes emotion, cognitions, and behavioral intentions, which is not the case with mind.<ref name=":6" />
== The Mind and its Mysteries ==
== The Mind and its Mysteries ==
=== Distinction between Hrday (हृदयम्) and Manas (मनः) ===
The ancient seer had doubtless his share of joys and sorrows, passions and dejections, moods and urges in life. And he had the right sense to turn his attention to these, 'inner breezes' within his own heart. So it was the ''''heart'''<nowiki/>' (हृद्) that was involved in all these psychological experiences. In the role of poets who composed the suktas, they often spoke of
The ancient seer had doubtless his share of joys and sorrows, passions and dejections, moods and urges in life. And he had the right sense to turn his attention to these, 'inner breezes' within his own heart. So it was the ''''heart'''<nowiki/>' (हृद्) that was involved in all these psychological experiences. In the role of poets who composed the suktas, they often spoke of
It is verily the 'heart' that is touched on when the intoxicating Soma enters the system. The heart indeed is the fountain of all 'song'. It is surely not the mere physical heart that is alluded to by the poet, but the psychological faculty characterized by 'feeling'; but of course the physical heart is the one bodily organ readily affected by intense feelings. It is different from the [[Manas (मनः)|Manas]] (Mind), but its close relative.<ref name=":2">Rao, Ramachandra. S. K. (1962) Development of Psychological Thought in India. Mysore: Kavyalaya Publishers. </ref>
It is verily the 'heart' that is touched on when the intoxicating Soma enters the system. The heart indeed is the fountain of all 'song'. It is surely not the mere physical heart that is alluded to by the poet, but the psychological faculty characterized by 'feeling'; but of course the physical heart is the one bodily organ readily affected by intense feelings. It is different from the [[Manas (मनः)|Manas]] (Mind), but its close relative.<ref name=":2">Rao, Ramachandra. S. K. (1962) Development of Psychological Thought in India. Mysore: Kavyalaya Publishers. </ref>
The heart is identified as the source of all involuntary, irrational and normally uncontrolled psychological processes. Fear enters, not mind, but heart as expressed by the poet saying, इन्द्र हृ॒दि यत्ते॑ ज॒घ्नुषो॒ भीरग॑च्छत् । "O Indra, if there arises fear in your heart at the time of killing Vrtra...." (Rigveda. 1.32.14). It is also not the mind but the heart that experiences longing, grief or pleasure.<ref name=":2" /> We see in the [[Yama Yami Samvada (यम यमि सम्वादः)|Yama Yami Samvada]], the longing of Yami and accusations she throws (ब॒तो ब॑तासि यम॒ नैव ते॒ मनो॒ हृद॑यं चाविदाम ।) for the lack of affection towards her (Rigveda. 10.10).
The heart is identified as the source of all involuntary, irrational and normally uncontrolled psychological processes. Fear enters, not mind, but heart (Rigveda. 10.84.7) as expressed by the poet saying, इन्द्र हृ॒दि यत्ते॑ ज॒घ्नुषो॒ भीरग॑च्छत् । "O Indra, if there arises fear in your heart at the time of killing Vrtra...." (Rigveda. 1.32.14). It is also not the mind but the heart that experiences longing, grief or pleasure. We see in the [[Yama Yami Samvada (यम यमि सम्वादः)|Yama Yami Samvada]], the longing of Yami and accusations she throws (ब॒तो ब॑तासि यम॒ नैव ते॒ मनो॒ हृद॑यं चाविदाम ।) for the lack of affection towards her (Rigveda. 10.10).
The Vedic seer has rightly recognized an intimate connection between the heart and the mind; indeed many references point to the mind being located in the heart. However, mind has an independent consideration also.
The Vedic seer has rightly recognized an intimate connection between the heart and the mind; indeed many references point to the mind being located in the heart. However, mind has an independent consideration also.<ref name=":2" />
=== Qualities of the Mind ===
=== Qualities of the Mind ===
Mind is ''par excellence'' an instrument of reason, it symbolizes the rational faculty of man. Its function is likened to the winnowing of barley through the seive; the function being selective reception and filtration of data. Mind can be truthful, unruffled, mature, firm and sharp. It is essentially intellectual and only indirectly connected with our emotional life. Mind is even invoked to exercise restraint over the tempestuous surgings of the heart. Lovelorn [[Pururava Urvashi Samvada (पुरुरवा-ऊर्वशी संवादः)|Pururava]] implores his beloved Urvashi to return home and he asks her to 'stay with mind'. Mind is said to 'investigate and consider' into deeds. While the heart represents rather the stirred-up state of the individual, mind symbolizes the reflective aspect of mental life. Maintenance of mind contributes to life; and death is associated with the dissolution of mind.<ref name=":2" />
Mind is ''par excellence'' an instrument of reason, it symbolizes the rational faculty of man. Its function is likened to the winnowing of barley through the seive; the function being selective reception and filtration of data. Mind can be truthful, unruffled, mature, firm and sharp. It is essentially intellectual and only indirectly connected with our emotional life. Mind is even invoked to exercise restraint over the tempestuous surgings of the heart. Lovelorn [[Pururava Urvashi Samvada (पुरुरवा-ऊर्वशी संवादः)|Pururava]] implores his beloved Urvashi to return home and he asks her to 'stay with mind'. Mind is said to 'investigate and consider' into deeds. While the heart represents rather the stirred-up state of the individual, mind symbolizes the reflective aspect of mental life. Maintenance of mind contributes to life; and death is associated with the dissolution of mind.<ref name=":2" />
The qualities of Manas are spoken of in Bhagavadgita; that it is volatile, turbulent, obstinate and restless, characterized by "chanchalatva", its control is as difficult as the control of wind.<ref name=":0" /> <blockquote>चञ्चलं हि मन: कृष्ण प्रमाथि बलवद्दृढम् | तस्याहं निग्रहं मन्ये वायोरिव सुदुष्करम् || 34|| (Bhag. Gita. 6.33)</blockquote>Not only was mind important in individual life, its contribution to social well-being was also recognized. The very last mantra of the Rigveda concludes with the celebrated prayer which emphasizes the psychological concord in social life:<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>स॒मा॒नी व॒ आकू॑तिः समा॒ना हृद॑यानि वः । स॒मा॒नम॑स्तु वो॒ मनो॒ यथा॑ व॒: सुस॒हास॑ति ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.191.4)</blockquote>Meaning: May our resolutions be uniform and our hearts united; May our minds be one, that we all live well together.<ref name=":2" />
=== Types of Mind ===
=== Types of Mind ===
The trend of modern science, unlike the older schools of thought are taking a liberal point of view in recent years and are open to the conviction that the mind may continue to exist even after the dissolution of the body and brain.<ref name=":3" />
The trend of modern science, unlike the older schools of thought are taking a liberal point of view in recent years and are open to the conviction that the mind may continue to exist even after the dissolution of the body and brain.<ref name=":3" />
According to Freud, Jung, and other psychologists, the greater portion of the mind is actually submerged, unknown to every one of us. Indian psychology agrees with them in this respect. The submerged mind, the subconscious state, is a potent factor and powerful enough to determine even conscious tendencies. Often we do not realize what influences are hidden there. A man may not be aware of the forces that lie beneath the surface of his mind, nor can these forces be suspected by an untrained observer. Indian psychologists call these hidden mental forces as "'''samskaras'''". These samskaras are different from the [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|Samskaras]] or purificatory sacraments prescribed in the Grhyasutras to be undergone from birth to death.<ref name=":3" /> The Samskaras are also referred to as "'''Vasanas'''". Vedanta philosophy conceptualizes Atman as the core of personality which is the prime control of the mind, body, and intellect, but Vasanas (or the inherent tendencies) determine the nature and activities originating from them.<ref name=":4" /> This difference between the mind and Atman has always confused the Western philosophers, till the researches of Freud, Jung, and Adler recognized the reality of unconscious. Cartesian dualism differentiating mind from matter is very recent to the Western thought while the Indian philosophy, particularly the Upanishads understood the mind “more from within than from without.”<ref name=":5">Mishra A, Mathai T, Ram D. ''History of psychiatry: An Indian perspective''. Ind Psychiatry J 2018;27:21-6</ref>
According to Freud, Jung, and other psychologists, the greater portion of the mind is actually submerged, unknown to every one of us. Indian psychology agrees with them in this respect. The submerged mind, the subconscious state, is a potent factor and powerful enough to determine even conscious tendencies. Often we do not realize what influences are hidden there. A man may not be aware of the forces that lie beneath the surface of his mind, nor can these forces be suspected by an untrained observer. Indian psychologists call these hidden mental forces as "'''samskaras'''". These samskaras are different from the [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|Samskaras]] or purificatory sacraments prescribed in the Grhyasutras to be undergone from birth to death.<ref name=":3" /> The mind is thus a storehouse of impressions of these past experiences also called as Samskaras. Vedanta philosophy conceptualizes Atman as the core of personality which is the prime control of the mind, body, and intellect, but '''Vasanas''' (or the inherent tendencies or predispositions) determine the nature and activities originating from them.<ref name=":4" /> This difference between the mind and Atman has always confused the Western philosophers, till the researches of Freud, Jung, and Adler recognized the reality of unconscious. Cartesian dualism differentiating mind from matter is very recent to the Western thought while the Indian philosophy, particularly the Upanishads understood the mind “more from within than from without.”<ref name=":5">Mishra A, Mathai T, Ram D. ''History of psychiatry: An Indian perspective''. Ind Psychiatry J 2018;27:21-6</ref>
=== Tendencies of the Mind ===
=== Tendencies of the Mind ===