Pramana (प्रमाणम्)

Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाणम्) is the means or chief instrument of knowing valid knowledge (pramaa (प्रमा)). From the questions like who and what created the universe, determining the nature of objects, sprang an urge for investigation into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa). This investigation led to identifying the criterion of what constitutes valid knowledge and the ways by which objects or things can be cognized. Pramana is a subject that arose from the need to recognize valid knowledge and various theories have been proposed to describe the same.

Introduction

All thinkers in general have given their attention to the problem of cognition for a long time. When reality reveals true knowledge it is called prama or valid knowledge, and when this revelation is false it is called aprama or invalid knowledge.  

Etymology

The term pramana is derived from the root maa with a prefix pra and suffix lyut.

Prama is defined as the karana or extraordinary cause of a prama or right knowledge.

Pramana Tattva

The tattva or the "true nature of", "the real knowledge about", "property really possessed by object", "assured cognition of an object" ; all these indicate an inquiry into the real state of things or objects. Both "Jnana" and "Prama" indicate knowledge, however

• Jnana means all kinds of knowledge, true or false. Example: there is a rope or snake.
• Yatharthajnana or Prama is when reality reveals true knowledge (valid knowledge).Example : knowledge of rope in a rope.
• Aprama is when reality reveals false knowledge (invalid knowledge). Example : knowledge of snake in a rope.

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object. Four basic factors make up the system of recognition.

Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras about what constitutes Pramana

तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः ।

1. The Prama or Pramiti : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding
2. The Prameya : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge
3. The Pramana : the chief instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge
4. The Pramaata : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of Arthatattva.

Pramanas though are ten in number, though 6 (Shadpramanas) of them are widely accepted though major schools of thought accept them variously

1. Pratyaksha (perception)
2. Anumana (inference)
3. Shabda or aagama (verbal testimony)
4. Upamana (comparison)
5. Arthaapatti (presumption)
6. Abhaava (negation or non-apprehension)

A brief description of all the Pramanas are as follows

Pratyaksha Pramana

Pratyaksha (Samskrit : ) pramana is made of two words Prati and Aksha. Meaning : In front of the eyes. Knowledge which is produced by the contact of a sense-organ with an object. Perception is a source of direct knowledge and leads one to apprehend the reality. All other means of knowledge are indirect sources of apprehending reality. Example: When the sense-organ, i.e. eye, comes in direct contact with a pot, there arises a perceptual knowledge of pot.

According to Nyaya

इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षोत्पन्नं ज्ञानं अव्यपदेश्यं अव्यभिचारि व्यवसायात्मकं प्रत्यक्षम् ।।४।।{प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम्}

According to Annambhatta's Tarkasangraha

इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षजन्यं ज्ञानं प्रत्यक्षम्।

Pratyaksha pramana is the primary and fundamental of all the sources of valid knowledge and it is universally recognized so by all schools of philosophy. According to Nyaya , perception is not the only source of our knowledge, but is the basis of the other sources or means of knowledge.

Anumana Pramana

"avinabhaavena samyag parokshanubhavo anumanah,"  Meaning forming a conclusion based on inference about something is anumana pramana. Thus anumana depends on previous experiences and this knowledge follows other knowledge. Example : where there is smoke there is fire.

Shabda Pramana

Shabda literally means verbal knowledge. Shabda pramana is also called as Agama pramana, sastra pramana according to the school of thought. "sabdha vijnanata samyag sannikrsharta anubhavah agamaha" that evidence about objects realized by the power of words and sentences is called Shabhda pramana.  This knowledge depends on reliable authority and also on aakaksha, yogyata and aasatti of a sentence. Different sounds such as those arising from musical instruments and bamboos also contribute to the realization of this knowledge. "Agama," literally means "that which has come", contextually it means that evidence which is realized by the process of understanding scriptures from rishis who constitute reliable authority.  Agama pramanas are divided in two parts - Apaurusheya and Paurusheya. Vedas, upanishadas, puranas, dharma sastras, and smritis are "apaurusheya,” or of non human origin.   The words of rishis and elders constitute "paurusheya pramanas.   Basically paurusheya pramanas ultimately do not contradict the Vedas.

Shabda pramana is designated in various ways by the different schools of Indian system. Thus, it is "shabda", according to Naiyayikas, "Shastra" according to Mimaamsakas, "Aptavachana" according to Samkhyaists and "Aagama" to Vedantins.

Upamana Pramana

The knowledge of similarity is generated by Upamana. This knowledge arises by the use of comparison of two things and the presence of some common factors in a thing. However, the word Upamana has been translated variously as comparison, analogy, identification, knowledge by similarity and knowledge by assimilation. It is derived from the words Upa meaning saadrisya or similarity and maana meaning cognition.

A person, who has perceived a cow in a town goes to a forest, and perceives a wild cow. He has an apprehension "this animal is similar to a cow" owing to the meeting of his eyes with the animal.. This knowledge of similarity of a cow with a wild cow is acquired by comparison.

Arthaapatti Pramana

Arthapatti is the presumption of something for the explanation of a known fact. The word arthaapatti gies under various translations as presumption, postulation, supposition, implication, and assumption. When a given or perceived fact cannot be explained without some other fact we have to presuppose or postulate the existence of this other fact even though we do not perceive it. Example : when a particular person named Chaitra, known to be alive, is not found in his house, it is assumed that he must be somewhere outside. What is presumed is said to be a distinct source of knowledge.

Anupalabdhi Pramana

Knowledge by which we immediately cognize the non-existence of an object, e.g. absence of rainfall indicates that the connection of cloud and the wind has not happened.