Upanishads (उपनिषदः)

Upanishads (Samskrit : उपनिषद्) are the concluding segments, available as a part of Aranyakas. Since they expound the various spiritual and dharmika siddhantas and tattvas that leads a sadhaka to the highest purpose of Moksha and because they are present at the end of the Vedas, they are also referred to as the Vedanta. They do not forbid the rituals or rites prescribed in the Karmakanda but expound that only through Jnana one can attain moksha.

The word Vedanta is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘Veda’ and  ‘Anta’. The word ‘anta’ means an end. The Vedanta essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-KandaThe Upanishads along with the Bhagavadgita and Brahmasutras constitute the Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी) and both the Gita and Brahmasutras are based again on the Upanishads. They are also the foundational sources for all Darshana shastras and including the Jain and Buddhist philosophies.

According to Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, these are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.

Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly and convincingly. The central concepts found in the Upanishads involve the following aspects of Sanatana Dharma

• Brahman (Supreme Being, Ultimate Reality)
• Ātman (Self)
• Jiva (Embodiment of Atman)
• Unity of Brahman and Atman (Know that you are Ātman)
• Srshti (Origin of Creation)
• Jnana (Knowledge that Unity and Self are not separate)
• Avidya (Ignorance)
• Moksha (The Paramapurushartha)

The Upanishads speak about the identity of the Supreme Being, the Brahman, the individual Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara and ultimately the path to mokṣa or mukti. Chronology and dating of Upanishads is not attempted in this article.

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

There are different versions about the meaning of Upanishad as given by many scholars. The term Upaniṣad term consists of उप (upa) and नि (ni) उपसर्ग-s (Upasargas or Prefixes) and सद् धातुः (Sad dhatu) used in the sense of विशरणगत्यवसादनेषु । Shri Adi Shankaracharya explains in his commentary on Taittriyopanishad about the meanings of Sad dhatu thus

• विशरण (नाशनम्) to destroy : They destroy the seeds of Avidya causing samsara in a Mumukshu (a sadhaka who wants to attain Moksha), hence this Vidya is called Upanishads

अविद्यादेः संसारबीजस्य विशरणाद् विनाशनादित्यनेन अर्थयोगेन विद्या उपनिषदुच्यते । avidyādeḥ saṁsārabījasya viśaraṇād vināśanādityanena arthayogena vidyā upaniṣaducyate ।

• गति (प्रपणम् वा विद्यर्थकम्) to obtain or to know : That vidya which leads to or make the sadhaka obtain Brahma, is called Upanishad.

परं ब्रह्म वा गमयतोति ब्रह्म गमयितृत्वेन योगाद् विद्योपनिषद् । paraṁ brahma vā gamayatoti brahma gamayitr̥tvena yogād vidyopaniṣad ।

• अवसादन (शिथिलर्थकम्) to loosen or to dissolve : Through which cycles of birth, aging etc painful process are loosened or dissolved (that is bondages of samsara are dissolved allowing the sadhaka to attain the Brahma)

गर्भवासजन्मजराद्युपद्रववृन्दस्य लोकान्तरेपौनपुन्येन प्रवृत्तस्य अवसादपितृत्वेन उपनिषदित्युच्यते । garbhavāsajanmajarādyupadravavr̥ndasya lokāntarepaunapunyena pravr̥ttasya avasādapitr̥tvena upaniṣadityucyate ।

His also defines the primary meaning of Upanishad as ब्रह्मविद्या (Brahmavidya। Knowledge of Brahma) and secondary meaning as ब्रह्मविद्याप्रतिपादकग्रन्थः (Brahmavidya pratipadaka granth । texts which teach Brahmavidya). Shankaracharya's commentaries of the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad also support this explanation.

An alternative explanation of the word Upanishad is "to sit near" derived as follows

• नि (ni) उपसर्ग (Upasarga or Prefix) in front of सद् धातुः (Sad dhatu) also means 'to sit'.
• उप (upa) Upasarga is used to mean 'nearness or close to'.
• उपनिषद् term thus means "to sit near"

Thus Upanishad came to mean as ' to sit near the Guru (preceptor) to obtain the secret knowledge'

Generally, Upanishads are synonymous with Rahasya (रहस्यम्) or secrecy. Upanishads themselves mention statements such as "इति उपनिषद् इति रहस्यम्" when discussing some important siddhantas. Probably such usages are given to prevent and caution against giving this knowledge to the undeserving.

In the mukhya upanishads, there are many instances of रहस्यम् meaning secret or hidden knowledge especially in Atharvaveda upanishads. Kaushitaki Upanishad for example, contains detailed siddhantas of मनोज्ञानम् and तत्वज्ञानम् (Psychology and metaphysics). Apart from them they also contain मृतकज्ञानम् (siddhantas around death, travel of Atman etc), बालमृत्यु निवारणम् (preventing untimely childhood deaths) शत्रुविनाशार्थ रहस्यम् (secrets about the destruction of enemies) etc. Chandogya Upanishads gives the secrets about the origin of worlds, Jiva, Jagat, Om and their hidden meanings.

Classification of Upanishads

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (mukhya) Upanishads. The rest of them aid in explaining bhakti or jnana concepts and many are without bhashyas. Some scholars accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13 to be the principal Upanishads and some others accept 108 Upanishads.

Basis for Classification

Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads based on

1. the presence or absence of Shankaracharya's bhasyas (Ten for which bhashyas are available are Dasopanishads and the rest describing devatas. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saurya etc)
2. the ancientness of Upanishad based on association with Aranyakas and Brahmanas
3. the ancientness and modernness of the Upanishads based on description of deities and other aspects ( Given by Shri Chintamani Vinayak on Page 256 of Reference )
4. the shanti patha given in each of the Upanishads
5. the ancientness and modernness of the Upanishads having prose or metrical compositions (mostly given by Western Indologists like Dr. Daison)

दशोपनिषदः ॥ Dasopanishads

Muktikopanishad lists the following ten as principal Upanishads which have received attention from Shri Adi Shankaracharya in form of his bhasyas.

ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरः । एेतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं तथा ॥ īśa-kēna-kaṭha-praśna-muṇḍa-māṇḍūkya-tittiraḥ । ēētarēyaṁ ca chāndōgyaṁ br̥hadāraṇyakaṁ tathā ॥

The 10 Mukhya Upanishad on which Adi Shankaracharya commented are:

1. ईशावाश्योपनिषद् ॥ Ishavasya Upanishad (Shukla Yajur Veda)
2. केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kena Upanishad (Sama Veda)
3. कठोपनिषद् ॥ Katha Upanishad (Yajur Veda)
4. प्रश्नोपनिषद् ॥ Prashna Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
5. मुण्डकोपनिषद् ॥ Mundaka Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
6. माण्डूक्योपनिषद् ॥ Mandukya Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
7. तैत्तियोपनिषद् ॥ Taittiriya Upanishad (Yajur Veda)
8. एेतरेयोपनिषद् ॥ Aitareya Upanishad (Rig Veda)
9. छान्दोग्योपनिषद्॥ Chhandogya Upanishad (Sama Veda)
10. बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Yajur Veda)

Apart from these ten, कौषीतकि (Kaushitaki) श्वेताश्वतर (Shvetasvatara) and मैत्रायणीय (Maitrayaniya) Upanishads are regarded as ancient since the first two of these three found a mention by Shankaracharya in his Brahmasutra bhashyas along with dashopanishad bhashyas. However, there are no available commentaries on these given by him.

Many Upanishads are the final or exclusive portions of the Aranyakas or the Brahmanas.

RigVeda		4th to 6th Adhyayas of 2nd Prapathaka of 1st Aranyaka of Aitareya Aranyaka (Page 250 of Reference )	एेतरेयोपनिषद् ॥ Aitareya Upanishad
		3rd to 6th Adhyayas of Shankhyayana Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference )	कौषीतकि उपनिषद् ॥ Kaushitaki Upanishad
Yajurveda	Krishna	7th to 9th Prapathakas of Taittriya Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference )	तैत्तियोपनिषद् ॥ Taittiriya Upanishad
		10th Prapathaka of Taittriya Aranyaka (also considered as Khila khanda) (Page 251 of Reference )	महानारायणीय उपनिषद् ॥ Mahanarayaneeya Upanishad
			कठोपनिषद् ॥ Katha Upanishad
		Maitrayaniya Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference )	मैत्रायणीय Maitrayaniya Upanishad
	Shukla	Brhdaranyaka (Page 251 of Reference )	Brhadaranyakopanishad
		40th Adhyaya of माध्यन्दिन-शतपथ-ब्राह्मणम् ॥ Madhyandina Shatapatabrahmana	ईशावाश्योपनिषद् ॥ Ishavasya Upanishad
Samaveda		10th Anuvaka of 4th Adhyaya of जैमिनीय ॥ Jaiminiya (Talavakara तलवकार) Brahmana (Page 253 of Reference )	केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kena Upanishad
			छान्दोग्योपनिषद्॥ Chhandogya Upanishad
Adharvaveda			प्रश्नोपनिषद् ॥ Prashna Upanishad
			मुण्डकोपनिषद् ॥ Mundaka Upanishad
			माण्डूक्योपनिषद् ॥ Mandukya Upanishad

Development

Authorship

The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown. The various philosophical theories in the early Upanishads have been attributed to famous seers such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Balaki, Pippalada and Sanatkumara. Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participated in the dialogues and are also credited in the early Upanishads.^[11]

There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to Shvetashvatara, and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.^[12] Scholars believe that early Upanishads, were interpolated^[13] and expanded over time, because of the differences within manuscripts of the same Upanishad discovered in different parts of South Asia, differences in non-Sanskrit version of the texts that have survived, and differences within each text in terms of the meter, the style, the grammar and the structure.^[15][16] The texts as they exist now is believed to be the work of many authors.^[17]

Geography

The general area of the composition of the early Upanishads was northern India, the region bounded on the west by the upper Indus valley, on the east by lower Ganges region, on the north by the Himalayan foothills, and on the south by the Vindhya mountain range.^[6] There is confidence about the early Upanishads being the product of the geographical center of ancient Brahmanism, comprising the regions of Kuru-Panchala and Kosala-Videha together with the areas immediately to the south and west of these.^[30] This region covers modern Bihar, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan and northern Madhya Pradesh.^[6]

While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact locations of the individual Upanishads, the results are tentative. Witzel identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area of Videha, whose king, Janaka, features prominently in the Upanishad.^[31]

The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more Western than an Eastern location in Indian subcontinent, possibly somewhere in the western region of the Kuru-Panchala country.^[32] Compared to the Principal Upanishads, the new Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā belong to an entirely different region, probably southern India, and are considerably relatively recent.^[33] In fourth chapter of the Kaushitaki Upanishad, a location named Kashi (modern Varanasi) is mentioned.^[6]

Classification

Muktika canon: major and minor Upanishads

There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, Muktikā Upanishad, predates 1656 CE^[34] and contains a list of 108 canonical Upanishads,^[35] including itself as the last. The earliest ones such as the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads date to the early centuries of the 1st millennium BCE,^[36] and the latest to around the mid 2nd-millennium CE during a period of Islamic invasions and political instability.^[4][6][19] Various scholars include the earliest 10, 11, 12 or 13 Upanishads as Mukhya (major) or Principal Upanishads, all composed in the 1st-milliennium BCE.^[4] The remainder 95 to 98 are called "minor Upanishads", and were likely composed between the last centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE and about mid 2nd-millennium CE.^[38][39] These are further divided into Upanishads associated with Shaktism (goddess Shakti), Sannyasa (renunciation, monastic life), Shaivism (god Shiva), Vaishnavism (god Vishnu), Yoga, and Sāmānya (general, sometimes referred to as Samanya-Vedanta).^[20][38]

Some of the Upanishads are categorized as "sectarian" since they present their ideas through a particular god or goddess of a specific Hindu tradition such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, or a combination of these such as the Skanda Upanishad. These traditions sought to link their texts as Vedic, by asserting their texts to be an Upanishad, thereby a Śruti.^[41] Most of these sectarian Upanishads, for example the Rudrahridaya Upanishad and the Mahanarayana Upanishad, assert that all the Hindu gods and goddesses are the same, all an aspect and manifestation of Brahman, the Vedic concept for metaphysical ultimate reality before and after the creation of the Universe.^[21][22]

Mukhya Upanishads

Main article: Mukhya Upanishads

The Mukhya Upanishads can be grouped into periods. Of the early periods are the Brihadaranyaka and the Chandogya, the oldest.^{[23][note 4]}

The Aitareya, Kauṣītaki and Taittirīya Upanishads may date to as early as the mid 1st millennium BCE, while the remnant date from between roughly the 4th to 1st centuries BCE, roughly contemporary with the earliest portions of the Sanskrit epics. It is alleged that the Aitareya, Taittiriya, Kausitaki, Mundaka, Prasna, and Katha Upanishads show Buddha's influence, and must have been composed after the 5th century BCE, but it could just as easily have been the other way around. It is also alleged that in the first two centuries A.D., they were followed by the Kena, Mandukya and Isa Upanishads, but other scholars date these earlier.^[46] Not much is known about the authors except for those, like Yajnavalkayva and Uddalaka, mentioned in the texts.^[47] A few women discussants, such as Gargi and Maitreyi, the wife of Yajnavalkayva,^[48] also feature occasionally.

Each of the principal Upanishads can be associated with one of the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas (shakhas).^[49] Many Shakhas are said to have existed, of which only a few remain. The new Upanishads often have little relation to the Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta philosopher: their language differs from that of the classic Upanishads, being less subtle and more formalized. As a result, they are not difficult to comprehend for the modern reader.^[50]

Veda-Shakha-Upanishad association
Veda	Recension	Shakha	Principal Upanishad
Rig Veda	Only one recension	Shakala	Aitareya
Sama Veda	Only one recension	Kauthuma	Chāndogya
		Jaiminiya	Kena
		Ranayaniya
Yajur Veda	Krishna Yajur Veda	Katha	Kaṭha
		Taittiriya	Taittirīya and Śvetāśvatara[51]
		Maitrayani	Maitrāyaṇi
		Hiranyakeshi (Kapishthala)
		Kathaka
	Shukla Yajur Veda	Vajasaneyi Madhyandina	Isha and Bṛhadāraṇyaka
		Kanva Shakha
Atharva	Two recension	Shaunaka	Māṇḍūkya and Muṇḍaka
		Paippalada	Prashna Upanishad

The Kauśītāki and Maitrāyaṇi Upanishads are sometimes added to the list of the mukhya Upanishads.

New Upanishads

There is no fixed list of the Upanishads as newer ones, beyond the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed.^[52] In 1908, for example, four previously unknown Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts, and these were named Bashkala, Chhagaleya, Arsheya and Saunaka, by Friedrich Schrader,^[53] who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.^[54] The text of three, the Chhagaleya, Arsheya and Saunaka, were incomplete and inconsistent, likely poorly maintained or corrupted.^[54]

Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu traditions, and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads.^[55] These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology^[24] to renunciation^[25] to sectarian theories.^[55] They were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era (~1600 CE).^[55][25] While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre-3rd century CE,^[28][29] many of these new texts under the title of "Upanishads" originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE,^[55] they are not Vedic texts, and some do not deal with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads.^[58]

The main Shakta Upanishads, for example, mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic Shakta Upaniṣads vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their "location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas. Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not accepted in Hinduism.^[59]

Association with Vedas

All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda (there are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda, Krishna Yajurveda), and Atharvaveda.^[60] During the modern era, the ancient Upanishads that were embedded texts in the Vedas, were detached from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic text, compiled into separate texts and these were then gathered into anthologies of Upanishads.^[55] These lists associated each Upanishad with one of the four Vedas, many such lists exist, and these lists are inconsistent across India in terms of which Upanishads are included and how the newer Upanishads are assigned to the ancient Vedas. In south India, the collected list based on Muktika Upanishad,^{[note 5]} and published in Telugu language, became the most common by the 19th-century and this is a list of 108 Upanishads.^[55][26] In north India, a list of 52 Upanishads has been most common.^[55]

The Muktikā Upanishad's list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 13 as mukhya,^{[27][note 6]} 21 as Sāmānya Vedānta, 20 as Sannyāsa,^[28] 14 as Vaishnava, 12 as Shaiva, 8 as Shakta, and 20 as Yoga.^[29] The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktikā are shown in the table below.^[60] The mukhya Upanishads are the most important and highlighted.

Veda-Upanishad association
Veda	Number[60]	Mukhya[27]	Sāmānya	Sannyāsa[28]	Śākta[30]	Vaiṣṇava[31]	Śaiva[32]	Yoga[29]
Ṛigveda	10	Aitareya, Kauśītāki	Ātmabodha, Mudgala	Nirvāṇa	Tripura, Saubhāgya-lakshmi, Bahvṛca	-	Akṣamālika	Nādabindu
Samaveda	16	Chāndogya, Kena	Vajrasūchi, Maha, Sāvitrī	Āruṇi, Maitreya, Brhat-Sannyāsa, Kuṇḍika (Laghu-Sannyāsa)	-	Vāsudeva, Avyakta	Rudrākṣa, Jābāli	Yogachūḍāmaṇi, Darśana
Krishna Yajurveda	32	Taittiriya, Katha, Śvetāśvatara, Maitrāyaṇi[note 7]	Sarvasāra, Śukarahasya, Skanda, Garbha, Śārīraka, Ekākṣara, Akṣi	Brahma, (Laghu, Brhad) Avadhūta, Kaṭhasruti	Sarasvatī-rahasya	Nārāyaṇa, Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa	Kaivalya, Kālāgnirudra, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Rudrahṛdaya, Pañcabrahma	Amṛtabindu, Tejobindu, Amṛtanāda, Kṣurika, Dhyānabindu, Brahmavidyā, Yogatattva, Yogaśikhā, Yogakuṇḍalini, Varāha
Shukla Yajurveda	19	Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Īśa	Subala, Mantrika, Niralamba, Paingala, Adhyatma, Muktika	Jābāla, Paramahaṃsa, Bhikṣuka, Turīyātītavadhuta, Yājñavalkya, Śāṭyāyaniya	-	Tārasāra	-	Advayatāraka, Haṃsa, Triśikhi, Maṇḍalabrāhmaṇa
Atharvaveda	31	Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Praśna	Ātmā, Sūrya, Prāṇāgnihotra[33]	Āśrama, Nārada-parivrājaka, Paramahaṃsa parivrājaka, Parabrahma	Sītā, Devī, Tripurātapini, Bhāvana	Nṛsiṃhatāpanī, Mahānārāyaṇa (Tripād vibhuti), Rāmarahasya, Rāmatāpaṇi, Gopālatāpani, Kṛṣṇa, Hayagrīva, Dattātreya, Gāruḍa	Atharvasiras,[34] Atharvaśikha, Bṛhajjābāla, Śarabha, Bhasma, Gaṇapati	Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya
Total Upanishads	108	13[note 6]	21	19	8	14	13	20

Philosophy

Main article: Vedanta

The Upanishadic age was characterized by a pluralism of worldviews. While some Upanishads have been deemed 'monistic', others, including the Katha Upanishad, are dualistic.^[74] The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the foundation of its Vedanta school.^[75] They contain a plurality of ideas.^{[76][note 8]}

The Upanishads include sections on philosophical theories that have been at the foundation of Indian traditions. For example, the Chandogya Upanishad includes one of the earliest known declaration of Ahimsa (non-violence) as an ethical precept.^[39][40] Discussion of other ethical premises such as Damah (temperance, self-restraint), Satya (truthfulness), Dāna (charity), Ārjava (non-hypocrisy), Daya (compassion) and others are found in the oldest Upanishads and many later Upanishads.^[41][42] Similarly, the Karma doctrine is presented in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which is the oldest Upanishad.^[43]

Development of thought

While the hymns of the Vedas emphasize rituals and the Brahmanas serve as a liturgical manual for those Vedic rituals, the spirit of the Upanishads is inherently opposed to ritual.^[86] The older Upanishads launch attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Chāndogya Upanishad parodies those who indulge in the acts of sacrifice by comparing them with a procession of dogs chanting Om! Let's eat. Om! Let's drink.^[86]

The Kaushitaki Upanishad asserts that "external rituals such as Agnihotram offered in the morning and in the evening, must be replaced with inner Agnihotram, the ritual of introspection", and that "not rituals, but knowledge should be one's pursuit".^[44] The Mundaka Upanishad declares how man has been called upon, promised benefits for, scared unto and misled into performing sacrifices, oblations and pious works.^[45] Mundaka thereafter asserts this is foolish and frail, by those who encourage it and those who follow it, because it makes no difference to man's current life and after-life, it is like blind men leading the blind, it is a mark of conceit and vain knowledge, ignorant inertia like that of children, a futile useless practice.^[45][46] The Maitri Upanishad states,^[47]

The performance of all the sacrifices, described in the Maitrayana-Brahmana, is to lead up in the end to a knowledge of Brahman, to prepare a man for meditation. Therefore, let such man, after he has laid those fires,^[91] meditate on the Self, to become complete and perfect.

— Maitri Upanishad^[92][93]

The opposition to the ritual is not explicit in the oldest Upanishads. On occasions, the Upanishads extend the task of the Aranyakas by making the ritual allegorical and giving it a philosophical meaning. For example, the Brihadaranyaka interprets the practice of horse-sacrifice or ashvamedha allegorically. It states that the over-lordship of the earth may be acquired by sacrificing a horse. It then goes on to say that spiritual autonomy can only be achieved by renouncing the universe which is conceived in the image of a horse.^[86]

In similar fashion, Vedic gods such as the Agni, Aditya, Indra, Rudra, Visnu, Brahma and others become equated in the Upanishads to the supreme, immortal and incorporeal Brahman-Atman of the Upanishads, god becomes synonymous with Self, and is declared to be everywhere, inmost being of each human being and within every living creature.^[48][49][50] The one reality or ekam sat of the Vedas becomes the ekam eva advitiyam or "the one and only and sans a second" in the Upanishads.^[86] Brahman-Atman and Self-realization develops, in the Upanishad, as the means to moksha (liberation, freedom in this life or after-life).^[50][51][52]

Brahman and Atman

Main articles: Ātman (Hinduism) and Brahman

Two concepts that are of paramount importance in the Upanishads are Brahman and Atman.^[101] The Brahman is the ultimate reality and the Atman is individual self (soul).^[53][54] Brahman is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.^[55][56][57] It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.^[53][58] Brahman is "the infinite source, fabric, core and destiny of all existence, both manifested and unmanifested, the formless infinite substratum and from which the universe has grown". Brahman in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".^[59]

The word Atman means the inner self, the soul, the immortal spirit in an individual, and all living beings including animals and trees.^[60][54] Ātman is a central idea in all the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.^[61] These texts state that the inmost core of every person is not the body, nor the mind, nor the ego, but Atman – "Soul" or "Self".^[62] Atman is the spiritual essence in all creatures, their real innermost essential being.^[63][64] It is eternal, it is ageless. Atman is that which one is at the deepest level of one's existence.

Atman is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with Atman, while others state Atman is part of Brahman but not identical.^[65][66] This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism. The Brahmasutra by Badarayana (~ 100 BCE) synthesized and unified these somewhat conflicting theories, stating that Atman and Brahman are different in some respects particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level and in the state of Self-realization, Atman and Brahman are identical, non-different.^[65]

The idea put forth by the Upanishadic seers that Atman and Brahman are One and the same is one of the greatest contributions made to the thought of the world.^{[116][117][118][119]}

Illusion

Main article: Maya (illusion)

Two different types of the non-dual Brahman-Atman are presented in the Upanishads, according to Mahadevan.^[120] The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is the all inclusive ground of the universe and another in which empirical, changing universe is a form of Maya, often translated as "illusion".

The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).^[67] The former manifests itself as Ātman (Soul, Self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of Atman as "true knowledge" (Vidya), and the knowledge of Maya as "not true knowledge" (Avidya, Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).^[68]

Hendrick Vroom explains, "the term Maya [in the Upanishads] has been translated as 'illusion,' but then it does not concern normal illusion. Here 'illusion' does not mean that the world is not real and simply a figment of the human imagination. Maya means that the world is not as it seems; the world that one experiences is misleading as far as its true nature is concerned."^[69] According to Wendy Doniger, "to say that the universe is an illusion (māyā) is not to say that it is unreal; it is to say, instead, that it is not what it seems to be, that it is something constantly being made. Māyā not only deceives people about the things they think they know; more basically, it limits their knowledge."^[70]

In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.^[71][72] Maya, or "illusion", is an important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating Self-knowledge, it is Maya which obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.^[73][74]

Schools of Vedanta

Main article: Vedanta

The Upanishads form one of the three main sources for all schools of Vedanta, together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras.^[129] Due to the wide variety of philosophical teachings contained in the Upanishads, various interpretations could be grounded on the Upanishads. The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.^[130] The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:^[131]

• According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.^[131]
• According to Vishishtadvaita the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
• According to Dvaita, all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities.

Other schools of Vedanta include Nimbarka's Dvaitadvaita, Vallabha's Suddhadvaita and Chaitanya's Acintya Bhedabheda.^[132] The philosopher Adi Sankara has provided commentaries on 11 mukhya Upanishads.^[133]

Advaita Vedanta

Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought.^[134] It deals with the non-dual nature of Brahman and Atman. Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.^[134] Gaudapada was the first person to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the conflicting statements of the Upanishads.^[135] Gaudapada's Advaita ideas were further developed by Shankara.^[136][137] King states that Gaudapada's main work, Māṇḍukya Kārikā, is infused with philosophical terminology of Buddhism, and uses Buddhist arguments and analogies.^[138] King also suggests that there are clear differences between Shankara's writings and the Brahmasutra,^[136][137] and many ideas of Shankara are at odds with those in the Upanishads.^[139] Radhakrishnan, on the other hand, suggests that Shankara's views of Advaita were straightforward developments of the Upanishads and the Brahmasutra,^[140] and many ideas of Shankara derive from the Upanishads.^[75]

Shankara in his discussions of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy referred to the early Upanishads to explain the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self".^[76][77][78]

The Upanishads contain four sentences, the Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings), which were used by Shankara to establish the identity of Atman and Brahman as scriptural truth:

• "Prajñānam brahma" - "Consciousness is Brahman" (Aitareya Upanishad)^[145]
• "Aham brahmāsmi" - "I am Brahman" (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad)^[146]
• "Tat tvam asi" - "That Thou art" (Chandogya Upanishad)^[147]
• "Ayamātmā brahma" - "This Atman is Brahman" (Mandukya Upanishad)^[148]

Although there are a wide variety of philosophical positions propounded in the Upanishads, commentators since Adi Shankara have usually followed him in seeing idealist monism as the dominant force.^{[149][note 9]}

Dvaita

The Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya.^[150] Dvaita is regarded as the best philosophic exposition of theism.^[151] Madhva, much like Adi Shankara claims for Advaita, states that his theistic Dvaita Vedanta is grounded in the Upanishads.^[79]

Vishishtadvaita

The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.^[153] Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.^[151] Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.^[79]

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2.        1 2 3 4 http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm, 6th Paragraph

3.        ↑ http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Vedas-and-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx

4.        1 2 3 4 Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, pages 25-29 and Chapter 1

5.        ↑ E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299

6.        1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 12-14

7.        1 2 King & Ācārya 1995, p. 52.

8.        ↑ Ranade 1926, p. 12.

9.        ↑ Ranade 1926, p. 205.

17.     ↑ Mahadevan 1956, pp. 59-60.

34.     ↑ Tripathy 2010, p. 84.

40.     ↑ Ayyangar, T. R. Srinivasa (1941). The Samanya-Vedanta Upanisads. Jain Publishing (Reprint 2007). ISBN 978-0895819833. OCLC 27193914. 

43.     ↑ Ayyangar, TRS (1953). Saiva Upanisads. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2007). pp. 194–196. ISBN 978-0895819819. 

47.     ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 56.

48.     ↑ Ranade 1926, p. 61.

49.     ↑ Joshi 1994, pp. 90–92.

51.     ↑ Lal 1992, p. 4090.

53.     ↑ Singh 2002, pp. 3–4.

54.     1 2 Schrader & Adyar Library 1908, p. v.

55.     1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Olivelle 1998, pp. xxxii-xxxiii.

56.     ↑ Paul Deussen (1966), The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Dover, ISBN 978-0486216164, pages 283-296; for an example, see Garbha Upanishad

57.     1 2 Patrick Olivelle (1992), The Samnyasa Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195070453, pages 1-12, 98-100; for an example, see Bhikshuka Upanishad

58.     ↑ Varghese 2008, p. 101.

59.     ↑ Brooks 1990, pp. 13–14.

60.     1 2 3 4 Parmeshwaranand 2000, pp. 404–406.

61.     ↑ Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814691, pages 566-568

62.     1 2 Peter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions, New York University Press, ISBN 978-0814736500, pages 60-88

63.     ↑ Robert C Neville (2000), Ultimate Realities, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791447765, page 319

64.     1 2 Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, pages 28-29

65.     ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. xxiii.

66.     1 2 Patrick Olivelle (1992), The Samnyasa Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195070453, pages x-xi, 5

67.     1 2 The Yoga Upanishads TR Srinivasa Ayyangar (Translator), SS Sastri (Editor), Adyar Library

68.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Śākta Upaniṣads, with the commentary of Śrī Upaniṣad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 7475481

69.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Vaishnava-upanishads: with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-brahma-yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 83901261

70.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Śaiva-Upanishads with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 863321204

71.     ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 217-219

72.     ↑ Prāṇāgnihotra is missing in some anthologies, included by Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814691, page 567

73.     ↑ Atharvasiras is missing in some anthologies, included by Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814691, page 568

74.     ↑ Glucklich 2008, p. 70.

75.     ↑ Fields 2001, p. 26.

76.     1 2 Olivelle 1998, p. 4.

77.     ↑ S Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, pages 17-19, Reprinted as ISBN 978-8172231248

78.     ↑ Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, The Principal Upanishads, Indus / Harper Collins India; 5th edition (1994), ISBN 978-8172231248 

79.     ↑ S Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, pages 19-20, Reprinted as ISBN 978-8172231248

80.     ↑ S Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, page 24, Reprinted as ISBN 978-8172231248

81.     ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 114-115 with preface and footnotes; Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 3.17, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 212-213

82.     ↑ Henk Bodewitz (1999), Hindu Ahimsa, in Violence Denied (Editors: Jan E. M. Houben, et al), Brill, ISBN 978-9004113442, page 40

83.     ↑ PV Kane, Samanya Dharma, History of Dharmasastra, Vol. 2, Part 1, page 5

84.     ↑ Chatterjea, Tara. Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy. Oxford: Lexington Books. p. 148. 

85.     ↑ Tull, Herman W. The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual. SUNY Series in Hindu Studies. P. 28

86.     1 2 3 4 Mahadevan 1956, p. 57.

87.     ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 30-42;

88.     1 2 Max Muller (1962), Manduka Upanishad, in The Upanishads - Part II, Oxford University Press, Reprinted as ISBN 978-0486209937, pages 30-33

89.     ↑ Eduard Roer, Mundaka Upanishad Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, pages 153-154

90.     ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 331-333

91.     ↑ "laid those fires" is a phrase in Vedic literature that implies yajna and related ancient religious rituals; see Maitri Upanishad - Sanskrit Text with English Translation EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, First Prapathaka

92.     ↑ Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 287-288

93.     ↑ Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 412–414 

94.     ↑ Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 428–429 

95.     ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 350-351

96.     1 2 Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of Upanishads at Google Books, University of Kiel, T&T Clark, pages 342-355, 396-412

97.     ↑ RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42

98.     ↑ Mark B. Woodhouse (1978), Consciousness and Brahman-Atman, The Monist, Vol. 61, No. 1, Conceptions of the Self: East & West (JANUARY, 1978), pages 109-124

99.     1 2 3 Jayatilleke 1963, p. 32.

100.  ↑ Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 36-39.

101.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 59.

102.  1 2 James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931798, page 122

103.  1 2 [a] Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791425138, page 64, Quote: "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of Atman with Brahman". [b] Chad Meister (2010), The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195340136, page 63; Quote: "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman (soul) and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."[c] David Lorenzen (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0-415215277, pages 208-209, Quote: "Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself".

104.  ↑ PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII

105.  ↑ Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, ISBN 978-9042015104, pages 43-44

106.  ↑ For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199738724, pages 51-58, 111-115; For monist school of Hinduism, see: B Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis - Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18-35

107.  ↑ Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pages 43-47

108.  ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 91

109.  ↑ [a] Atman, Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), Quote: "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul"; [b] John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192800947, See entry for Atman; [c] WJ Johnson (2009), A Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198610250, See entry for Atman (self).

110.  ↑ PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36

111.  ↑ Soul is synonymous with Self in translations of ancient texts of Hindu philosophy

112.  ↑ Alice Bailey (1973), The Soul and Its Mechanism, ISBN 978-0853301158, pages 82-83

113.  ↑ Eknath Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, Nilgiri Press, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 38-39, 318-320

114.  1 2 John Koller (2012), Shankara, in Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415782944, pages 99-102

115.  ↑ Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads at Google Books, Dover Publications, pages 86-111, 182-212

116.  ↑ Lanman 1897, p. 790.

117.  ↑ Brown 1922, p. 266.

118.  ↑ Slater 1897, p. 32.

119.  ↑ Varghese 2008, p. 132.

120.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 62.

121.  ↑ Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 161, at Google Books, pages 161, 240-254

122.  ↑ Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791436844, page 376

123.  ↑ H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 978-0802840974, page 57

124.  ↑ Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618555, page 119

125.  ↑ Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415245227, pages 47-48

126.  ↑ Teun Goudriaan (2008), Maya: Divine And Human, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120823891, pages 1-17

127.  ↑ KN Aiyar (Translator, 1914), Sarvasara Upanishad, in Thirty Minor Upanishads, page 17, OCLC 6347863

128.  ↑ Adi Shankara, Commentary on Taittiriya Upanishad at Google Books, SS Sastri (Translator), Harvard University Archives, pages 191-198

129.  ↑ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 272.

130.  ↑ Raju 1992, p. 176-177.

131.  1 2 Raju 1992, p. 177.

132.  ↑ Ranade 1926, pp. 179–182.

133.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 63.

134.  1 2 Encyclopædia Britannica.

135.  ↑ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 273.

136.  1 2 King 1999, p. 221.

137.  1 2 Nakamura 2004, p. 31.

138.  ↑ King 1999, p. 219.

139.  1 2 Collins 2000, p. 195.

140.  ↑ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 284.

141.  ↑ John Koller (2012), Shankara in Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415782944, pages 99-108

142.  ↑ Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 3-4; Quote - "(...) Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist. There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4. Vaibhashikas, who agree with later (Sautranticas) except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect." 143.  ↑ Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at page 3, OCLC 19373677

144.  ↑ KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards; Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction, p. 2, at Google Books, pages 2-4 Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now; John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".

145.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, p. 669.

146.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 725–727.

147.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 747–750.

148.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 697–701.

149.  1 2 Olivelle 1998.

150.  ↑ Raghavendrachar 1956, p. 322.

151.  1 2 Chari 1956, p. 305.

152.  1 2 Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy, Vol. 20, No. 2, pages 215-224, doi:10.1080/09552367.2010.484955

153.  ↑ Klostermaier 2007, pp. 361–363.

154.  1 2 Chousalkar, pp. 130-134.

155.  1 2 Wadia 1956, p. 64-65.

156.  ↑ Collins 2000, pp. 197–198.

157.  ↑ Urwick 1920.

158.  ↑ Keith 2007, pp. 602-603.

159.  1 2 WD Strappini, The Upanishads, p. 258, at Google Books, The Month and Catholic Review, Vol. 23, Issue 42

160.  ↑ RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42; Chousalkar, Ashok (1986), Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma, pages 130-134

161.  1 2 Sharma 1985, p. 20.

162.  1 2 Müller 1900, p. lvii.

163.  ↑ Muller 1899, p. 204.

164.  1 2 Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997, pp. 558-59.

165.  ↑ Müller 1900, p. lviii.

166.  ↑ Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997, pp. 558-559.

167.  ↑ Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997, pp. 915-916.

168.  ↑ See Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1858), Essays on the religion and philosophy of the Hindus. London: Williams and Norgate. In this volume, see chapter 1 (pp. 1–69), On the Vedas, or Sacred Writings of the Hindus, reprinted from Colebrooke's Asiatic Researches, Calcutta: 1805, Vol 8, pp. 369–476. A translation of the Aitareya Upanishad appears in pages 26–30 of this chapter.

169.  ↑ Rammohun Roy and the Making of Victorian Britain,By Lynn Zastoupil. Retrieved 1 June 2014. 

170.  ↑ "The Upanishads, Part 1, by Max Müller". 

171.  ↑ Paramananda, Swami (1919). The Upanishads (PDF). The Pennsylvania State University. p. 7. Retrieved 1 June 2014. 

172.  ↑ Sadhale 1987.

173.  ↑ Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press 

174.  ↑ Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997.

175.  ↑ Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli (1953), The Principal Upanishads, New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers (1994 Reprint), ISBN 81-7223-124-5 

176.  ↑ Olivelle 1992.

177.  ↑ Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 395.

178.  ↑ Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 397.

179.  1 2 Singh 1999, p. 456-461.

180.  ↑ Versluis 1993, pp. 69, 76, 95. 106–110.

181.  ↑ Eliot 1963.

182.  ↑ Schrödinger 1992, p. 129.

183.  ↑ Easwaran 2007, p. 9.

184.  ↑ Juan Mascaró, The Upanishads, Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0140441635, page 7, 146, cover

185.  1 2 Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads University of Kiel, T&T Clark, pages 150-179

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Isha Kena Katha Prashna Mundaka Mandukya Taittiriya Aitareya Chandogya Brihadaranyaka Brahma Kaivalya Jabala Shvetashvatara Hamsa Aruneya Garbha Narayana Paramahamsa Amritabindu Amritanada Atharvashiras Atharvashikha Maitrayaniya Kaushitaki Brihajjabala Nrisimha Tapaniya Kalagni Rudra Maitreya Subala Kshurika Mantrika Sarvasara Niralamba Shukarahasya Vajrasuchi Tejobindu Nadabindu Dhyanabindu Brahmavidya Yogatattva Atmabodha Naradaparivrajaka Trishikhi-brahmana Sita Yogachudamani Nirvana Mandala-brahmana Dakshinamurti Sharabha Skanda Mahanarayana Advayataraka Rama Rahasya Ramatapaniya Vasudeva Mudgala Shandilya Paingala Bhikshuka Maha Sariraka Yogashikha Turiyatita Sannyasa Paramahamsaparivrajaka Akshamalika Avyakta Ekakshara Annapurna Surya Akshi Adhyatma Kundika Savitri Atma Pashupatabrahma Parabrahma Avadhuta Tripuratapini Devi Tripura Kathashruti Bhavana Rudrahridaya Yoga-Kundalini Bhasma Rudraksha Ganapati Darshana Tarasara Mahavakya Pancabrahma Pranagnihotra Gopala-Tapani Krishna Yajnavalkya Varaha Shatyayaniya Hayagriva Dattatreya Garuda Kali-Santarana Jabali Saubhagyalakshmi Sarasvati-rahasya Bahvricha Muktikā