Socio-economic Aspects of Rg Veda (ऋग्वेदे सामाजिक-आर्थिक-विषयाश्च)

Rgveda is an ancient text which contains stutis (praise or invocations) to many deities of that time. It holds a unique place in the world literatures for its many-fold aspects. It is a great cultural heritage describing the socio-economic conditions of the Rgvedic times. The social fabric, habits of the people, their activities and occupations, the wars they fought, the metals they used, the technology they were aware of, the food they ate and their lifestyle is well evident in the study of Rgveda. We find details on many topics such as Varna vyavastha, Ashrama vyavastha, role of women in the society, marriage including right to choose a husband (svayamvar), widow remarriage, shiksha (teaching methods), food and drinks, garment industry, furniture and utensils, construction of houses and buildings, planning cities and villages, travel, warfare, agriculture, animal husbandry and prosperity in terms of owning cattle, various occupations such as that of weavers, carpenters specifically making chariots, gold and precious stone artisans, sculptors, and the leather artisans to name a few.

Knowledge of trade during Rgvedic time is seen from the various kinds of "coins" mentioned in the mantras. People were well-versed about economic factors such as interest, percentage, profit and loss. Trade was well developed both on land and on seas. People faced natural calamities and sought protection for the country as a whole.

Political System

We find the usage of the terms such as "Rastra" and "Desha". Political system was well developed and the village was the smallest unit of governance. The social structure consisted successively of the family (Kula), the village (Grama) whose headman was called gramini, and the clan (Vish) was a collection several gramas having a headman called Vishpati. Then several Vish constituted the bigger group of people (Jana) and an aggregation of all Jana in turn constitutes the rashtra (the country). A rashtra was a small state ruled by a raja (king). The bigger rastras were ruled by a 'samrat' and he enjoyed a position of greater authority and commanded respect. We find that people defined the nature and duties of a ruler, the Raja. We find relevant information about the nature of the ruler and associated rituals such as "rajya abhisheka" described in all Vedic literatures. One of the earliest wars described in the Rgveda is about the war of Raja Sudasa with ten rajas of other "Janas". In this war, Indra helped Raja Sudasa obtain victory. It was called as "Dasharajna yuddha (दाशराज्ञ युद्ध)."

Varna vyavastha

While varnas are not very explicitly described in the Rigveda, it is considered that the social body of the Indian society included men of all ranks and professions. Four-fold varnas in the society is barely hinted in a few instances in the Rgveda. However, in the tenth mandala of Rgveda we find the first-ever distinct reference to the existence of Varna vyavastha in the Indian society. The famous Purusha Sukta mantra describes the origin and names of the four varnas as follows

ब्रा॒ह्म॒णो॑ऽस्य॒ मुख॑मासीद्बा॒हू रा॑ज॒न्य॑: कृ॒तः । ऊ॒रू तद॑स्य॒ यद्वैश्य॑: प॒द्भ्यां शू॒द्रो अ॑जायत ॥१२॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.90.12)

It states that the four varnas formed from the body of the Purusha, the Brahmana was from the mouth, Rajanya (kshatriya) originated from the two shoulders, Vaishyas formed from the two thighs and the Shudras from the feet. In Atharvaveda and Yajurveda we find extensive details about the four varnas, specifically in the Yajurveda the activities to be performed by the people belonging to the four varnas are clearly outlined. It may be noted that in vedic literature varnavyavastha was based on "karma", dependent on guna and karma and not on "janma" or by birth. It referred to occupation or activities; anyone choosing the teaching profession was a brahmana and those associated to the army were kshatriyas. By his tapas Vishvamitra came to be called a Brahmarshi and he is one of the vaidik rshis who gave the Rgveda mantras. There was no inferiority or superiority among the people of different varnas and all lived understanding their duties in harmony. There are references to विप्रराज्य (Viprarajya) or Brahmana rajya and समर्य राज्य (Samarya Rajya) or Vaishya rajyas. Brahmanas were referred to using the terms Brahman, Vipra, and Devas. Vaishyas were referred to as Vish, Arya, Samarya. Rgveda mentions that Viprarajyas spread in vast areas just like the oceans, where yajnas and other dharmik rituals were paid special attention to. It is also said that the great Samaryarajyas flourished with bountifulness of food and armed-forces. However due to some shortcomings both the administrative models were not popular among the people and were lost in time.

अयं .... समुद्र इव पप्रथे। .... शवो यज्ञेषु विप्रराज्ये। (Rig. Veda. 7.3.4) अनु .... मदामसि, महे समर्यराज्ये । (Rig. Veda. 9.110.2)

Shudras were not treated with disrespect or looked down up in Vedic times. They were allowed to read Vedas as mentioned in the Yajurveda. They were given the position of Rajakrt (one who works for the Rajas) and included the Rathakaaras (chariot makers), Karmars (artisans), Suta (chariot riders) were all Shudras. They are also given such positions for effective administration. People opted for various professions in order to earn their livelihood. Members of the same family took different professions for their livelihood. Rshi Vishvamitra, who belonged to the kshatriya varna lived as a Brahmana. The descendants of the Rshi Bhrgu were master carpenters who had the expertise in making chariots. Such references indicate that the professions were not exclusive and hereditary. Women were allowed to study vedas and participate in debates.

Ashrama-vyavastha

Similar to Varna vyavastha, the existence of an organized society through the Ashrama vyavastha has been first mentioned in the Rgveda. Of the four ashramas, Brahmacharya and Grhastha ashrama are discussed widely, where as Vanaprastha and Sanyasa ashramas find very little mention.

Brahmacharya ashrama starts with the Upanayana samskara and ends with the Samavartana samskara in these texts. The Upanayana samskara represented the start of education, where students of both genders studied Vedas and shastras. During this period the method of learning was by rote under the direct instruction of an Acharya. Grhastha ashrama started with marriage. There is a mention that a bride can choose the groom of her liking (svayamvara) as described in the case of Rshi Vimada whom the daughter of Raja Purumitra chose as her husband in a svayamvara. Rgveda (3.53.4) जा॒येदस्तं॑, specially emphasizes the role of the lady as a homemaker and states that wife (जाया) is verily the home (अस्तम्). After marriage she gets the responsibility of a 'गृहपत्नी or गृहस्वामिनी' (the mistress of the house). She serves and cares for the in-laws, and husband and on the other hand oversees the activities of the family including the in-laws. People showed eagerness for children in a family and prayers for sons and grandsons are seen. The husband and the wife are to perform religious rites and worship Agni and devatas together (Rgveda. 5.3.2 and 5.28.3). Thus as householders, they were to institute yajnas and liberally give danas to the rtviks (Rgveda. 6.53.2). Hospitality was an essential domestic virtue during the Rgvedic times. Annadana and dana were greatly emphasized. Many such points related to marriage, husband, and wife are given in the Vivaha Sukta (10.85.1-47) of the Rgveda.

गृ॒हान्ग॑च्छ गृ॒हप॑त्नी॒ यथासो॑.... (Rg.Veda. 10.85.26) स॒म्राज्ञी॒ श्वशु॑रे भव स॒म्राज्ञी॑ श्व॒श्र्वां भ॑व । नना॑न्दरि स॒म्राज्ञी॑ भव स॒म्राज्ञी॒ अधि॑ दे॒वृषु॑ ॥४६॥ (Rg.Veda. 10.85.46)

The aspects that both the husband and wife are to be educated, able to conduct their activities in the society, that a wife may a scholar, bright and a good orator have been mentioned in Rgveda (10.159.2). There is also a caution that they should not be caught in the materialistic enjoyments of the world (Rgveda 7.21.5). In the families of the Maharajas, presence of polygamy was mentioned (Rg. Veda. 7.26.3). Widow remarriage was not unknown. Rgveda mantra says - O lady! leave the dead husband and accept another who desires to marry (you).

ह॒स्त॒ग्रा॒भस्य॑ दिधि॒षोस्तवे॒दं पत्यु॑र्जनि॒त्वम॒भि सं ब॑भूव ॥८॥ (Rg.Veda. 10.18.8)

The words such as Parivrajaka or Bhikshuka representing the Sanyasa ashrama are not found in the Vedas. Terms such as "muni" (8.17.14), "mumukshu" (1.180.4) are rarely found in the Rgveda.

Children were regarded as the symbols of immortality. The father-son relationship was held as the most important and most sublime. Grown-up sons kept their fathers company, received instructions and obeyed his orders (Rgveda. 1.68.5). The son is denoted by the term Putra and Suna. A yajamana approaches Agni just as a son does to his father. Thus in those times, the parents as an overall guardian, had complete control over their children. Adoption was not favoured, but a sonless father stipulated that his daughter's son will be his son to perform his funeral rites (Rgveda. 3.31.1).

Dress and Ornaments

Soft garments made of wool (ऊर्णम्रदाः) have been known to the people of those days (Rgveda. 5.5.4). In the other vedas we find that garments of silk and specific dresses have been mentioned. It is interesting to note that the body coverings consisted of upper (अधिवास) and lower garments (अधोवास्त्र) as seen from the mantras अधीवासं परी मातू । (Rg. Veda. 1.180.9) अधिवास्त्रा वधूरिव । (Rg. Veda. 8.26.13). The upper garment over the dress was worn by brides. The use of inner wear such as petticoats, loose kurta like tops (द्रापि) and golden 'thread' हिरण्यपेशसा (Rg. Veda. 8.32.8) for decorating the cloth is also known since early days. Such decorated garments were worn by the married couple. Gold was used to make ornaments as is known through the mention of मरुतो रुक्मवक्षसः (Rg.Veda. 1.66.6). रुक्म (Rukma) is an round gold ornament worn on the chest, Maruts are the devatas who are adorned with such ornaments. They are also described to wear खादि (Khaadi), a kind of ornament made of gold and worn on the feet, पत्सु खादयः। (Rg.Veda. 5.54.11). कर्णशोभन (Karnashobhana) is the name of the ear ornaments made of gold mentioned in Rgveda (8.78.3). मणिग्रीवम् (Rg. Veda. 2.122.14) was the term for necklaces studded with precious stones which were used by men and women in those days.

Building Construction and City Layout

In Rgveda and Atharvaveda there are references to a large building having many doors built in the middle of a lake using gold as construction material.

बृहन्तं मानं वरुण स्वधावः, सहस्रद्वारं जगमा गृहं ते । (Rg. Veda. 7.88.5)

Similarly, Mitra-Varuna is mentioned to have a sabhagrha (assembly hall) having many pillars (Rg.Veda. 2.41.5). Buildings were so constructed such that they had ambient temperatures in the three main seasons namely, hot, cold and rainy seasons (Rg. Veda. 8.47.5). In the fourth mandala, we find a reference to the forts or enclosures made of stone and that Indra destroyed ninety-nine such areas to kill asuras Vrtra and Namuchi.

शतम् अश्मन्मयीनां पुरामिन्द्रो व्यास्यत्। (Rg. Veda. 4.30.20) हत्वी दस्यून् पुर आयसीर्नि तारीत् । (Rg. Veda. 2.20.8)

Asuras also had forts or walled cities made of metal. Indra destroyed many such cities of the asuras. Such references throw light on the advanced state of building construction in the Rgvedic society.

Economy

Agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and commerce were the main economic activities of the Rgvedic people. Interestingly in the Rgveda, we find reference to agriculture as a virtue to be possessed against a game of dice (considered as a vice).

अक्षैर्मा दीव्यः कृषिमित् कृषस्व । (Rg. Veda. 10.34.7)

Rgveda clearly mentions that the technology involved in agriculture or Krshi was first given by Prthu Maharaja (Prthi), who was the son of Veni. He produced different kinds of food grains (Anna) by using krshividya. This information is corroborated in Atharva Veda and Mahabharata (Shanti Parva) and Bhagavata Purana (Skanda 4.16-23).

पृथी यद् वां वैन्यः। (Rg. Veda. 8.9.10)

There are a few agriculture related suktas in Rgveda (10.101 and 4.59). In Mandala 10, we find an interesting aspect as to how agriculture was initiated. Sukta 28 mentions that at first devagana (reference to those wise people who were interested in Purusharthas) came forward with their axes (परशु) to clear the forests. They also had many other ganas who helped them even the land. The useful timbers (सुद्रु) were laid near the river banks and grass and weeds (कृपीट) were burnt down.

दे॒वास॑ आयन्पर॒शूँर॑बिभ्र॒न्वना॑ वृ॒श्चन्तो॑ अ॒भि वि॒ड्भिरा॑यन् । नि सु॒द्र्वं१ दध॑तो व॒क्षणा॑सु॒ यत्रा॒ कृपी॑ट॒मनु॒ तद्द॑हन्ति ॥८॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.28.8)

From this it may be known that forests were widespread and agriculture had to be initiated in forest clearings. People were dependent on Anna (food) and hence agriculture was of utmost importance. The process of agricultural activities was explained in the Rgveda. They include preparing the plough, yolking the oxen, and sowing seeds in well prepared land. A prayer for plentiful and bountiful crop is expressed in the mantras of mandala ten. Once the crop is ready, they are cut using sickles and the ripe grains are brought home after appropriate treatment.

यु॒नक्त॒ सीरा॒ वि यु॒गा त॑नुध्वं कृ॒ते योनौ॑ वपते॒ह बीज॑म् । गि॒रा च॑ श्रु॒ष्टिः सभ॑रा॒ अस॑न्नो॒ नेदी॑य॒ इत्सृ॒ण्य॑: प॒क्वमेया॑त् ॥३॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.101.3)

Till today many of these practices are followed with the change being the implements used. People were well aware that to get good quality food grains, the best quality seed has to be sown. Farmers hence sowed good quality seeds. Manure was used for high yield; irrigation was also practiced.

शु॒नं न॒: फाला॒ वि कृ॑षन्तु॒ भूमिं॑ शु॒नं की॒नाशा॑ अ॒भि य॑न्तु वा॒हैः । शु॒नं प॒र्जन्यो॒ मधु॑ना॒ पयो॑भि॒: शुना॑सीरा शु॒नम॒स्मासु॑ धत्तम् ॥८॥ (Rg. Veda. 4.57.8)

According to this mantra, the flat portion of the plough easily flattens the earth, as the farmer drives the bulls. Vayu and Surya (शुनासीर) satisfied with the havishya offered give good grain yield in the land.

शु॒नं वा॒हाः शु॒नं नर॑: शु॒नं कृ॑षतु॒ लाङ्ग॑लम् । शु॒नं व॑र॒त्रा ब॑ध्यन्तां शु॒नमष्ट्रा॒मुदि॑ङ्गय ॥४॥ (Rg. Veda. 4.57.8)

Since the earliest times, agricultural practices and animal husbandry went hand in hand. The mantra above is an invocation for the happiness of the animals (farm) and people, "let the animals be happy, let the men be happy, may the plough move easily (on the field), while the ropes are bound (to the animals) and the whip be used as appropriate." Excessive rains and drought were mentioned as the calamities damaging to the crops. Dhanyas or Yavas were the terms used to refer to the food grains collectively.