Varna Dharma (वर्णधर्मः)

This article needs editing. Add and improvise the content from reliable sources.

Varna Dharma (Samskrit : वर्णधर्मः) refers to a social order based on dharma. In this framework, brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra form the components of the society.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

Varna Vyavastha (वर्णव्यवस्था) is a vision presented by dharma traditions wherein diversity is not only recognized as a fundamental reality of the human society, but is also made the foundation stone of human welfare. Dharma means “that which upholds” and hence, a social order based on the dharma should be such that it leads each individual to well-being and fulfillment, all the while establishing justice and harmony in the society, a notion well summarized in the popular saying

लोकाः समस्ताः सुखिनो भवन्तु । lokāḥ samastāḥ sukhino bhavantu ।

Meaning : let all beings in the world attain happiness.

वर्णविचारः ॥ The Concept of Varna

The Rshis and the authors of dharmashastra conceived of a social order wherein the uniqueness in temperaments and capabilities of every individual was not only recognized, but was made the central piece of the entire conceptual social structure and called this conceptual framework Varna Vyavastha. Thus, it is important to identify the designation and structuring of varna as a conceptual framework and not a social stratification.

Scholars have often understood varna as a social organization, as caste and/or class that refers to definite social grouping, which has led to mistaken notions that make varna, jati, kula and caste synonymous. While kula and jati refer to social groupings based on kinship relationships and ethno-cultural identities, varna is a conceptual framework that aims to provide a conceptual basis for building a social order that promotes harmony and overall wellbeing of everyone.

वेदे वर्णः ॥ Varna in the Vedas

Though, varna system has often been understood as a reference to “caste system” or “class system” representing a social grouping, the primary usage of the term in the veda and dharmashastras has been that of a “conceptual framework". Rgveda Purushasukta (verse 12) provides an earliest reference to the conceptual framework of varna. It uses the metaphor of human body to represent the universe as a cosmic Purusha with his limbs denoting various aspects and functions of the universe.

ब्राह्मणोऽस्य मुखमासीद्बाहू राजन्यः कृतः । ऊरू तदस्य यद्वैश्यः पद्भ्यां शूद्रो अजायत ॥१२॥ (Rig.10.90.12)

brāhmaṇo'sya mukhamāsīdbāhū rājanyaḥ kr̥taḥ । ūrū tadasya yadvaiśyaḥ padbhyāṁ śūdro ajāyata ॥12॥ (Rig.10.90.12)

Meaning: The Brahmana (representing spiritual wisdom and splendour) was His mouth; the Kshatriya (constituting administrative and military prowess) became His arms. His thighs were the Vaishya (who formed commercial and business enterprise); of His feet the Shudra (repository of the productive and sustaining force) was born.

The sukta mentions how brahmaṇa, kshatriya, vaishya and Shudra manifested out of Cosmic Puruṣa’s head, hands, thighs and feet, respectively. It is to be understood here that the different limbs of a body, though being inseparable part of the body, are distinct from each other in their nature and function. For example, the quality of the head is intelligence and accordingly its function is thinking and decision making. Distinct from this are the feet, which have the quality of movement and hence a function of carrying the body to different places. The same is the case with other organs.

स्मृत्यां वर्णः ॥ Varna in Smrti

Manusmrti (1.87) describes how cosmic Purusha allotted different duties to people born from His different limbs for the sake of protecting and sustaining the universe. Talking of the purpose of the Varna Dharma Manu says,

सर्वस्यास्य तु सर्गस्य गुप्त्यर्थं स महाद्युतिः । मुखबाहूरुपज्जानां पृथक्कर्माण्यकल्पयत् । । १.८७ । ।

sarvasyāsya tu sargasya guptyarthaṁ sa mahādyutiḥ । mukhabāhūrupajjānāṁ pr̥thakkarmāṇyakalpayat । । 1.87 । ।

Meaning: With a view to the protection of this entire creation, the Resplendent One ordained the distinct functions of those who sprang from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and the feet (1.87).

महाभारते वर्णः ॥ Varna in the Mahabharata

Mahabharata (12.188) assigns a color to each varna that symbolically represents the attributes/svabhava associated with that varna, reflecting the three qualities of the nature (prakrti): sattva, rajas, and tamas.

It is said in the Moksha Dharma Parva in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata that,

ब्राह्मणानां सितो वर्णः क्षत्रियाणां तु लोहितः । वैश्यानां पीतको वर्णः शूद्राणामसितस्तथा ॥ ५ ॥

brāhmaṇānāṁ sito varṇaḥ kṣatriyāṇāṁ tu lohitaḥ । vaiśyānāṁ pītako varṇaḥ śūdrāṇāmasitastathā ॥ 5 ॥

Meaning: The colour of the brahmanas is white, kshatriyas is red, vaishyas is yellow and that of the shudras is black. Explaining how this difference of Varna came about it is said,

न विशेषोऽस्तिवर्णानां सर्वे ब्राह्ममिदं जगत् । ब्रह्मणा पूर्वसृष्टं हि कर्मभिर्वर्णतां गतम् ॥ १० ॥

na viśeṣo'stivarṇānāṁ sarve brāhmamidaṁ jagat । brahmaṇā pūrvasr̥ṣṭaṁ hi karmabhirvarṇatāṁ gatam ॥ 10 ॥

Meaning: O sage, in the beginning, there was no difference among the varnas. Having originated from Lord Brahma, the entire universe was Brahmana. Later, due to the the various karmas (activities), they were differentiated on the basis of Varnas. It is further said that,

कामभोगप्रियास्तीक्ष्णाः क्रोधनाः प्रियसाहसाः । त्यक्त्वस्वधर्मारक्ताङ्गास्ते द्विजाः क्षत्रतां गताः ॥ ११ ॥

kāmabhogapriyāstīkṣṇāḥ krodhanāḥ priyasāhasāḥ । tyaktvasvadharmāraktāṅgāste dvijāḥ kṣatratāṁ gatāḥ ॥ 11 ॥

Meaning : Those who, having foresaken the duties appropriate for a brahmana, favoured material enjoyment, had sharp nature, anger and were known for their valarous deeds; and whose body became red due to this very reason, (those brahmanas) attained the Varna of a kshatriya.

गोभ्यो वृत्तिं समास्थाय पीताः कृष्युपजीविनः । स्वधर्मान् नानुतिष्ठन्ति ते द्विजा वैश्यतां गताः ॥ १२ ॥

gobhyo vr̥ttiṁ samāsthāya pītāḥ kr̥ṣyupajīvinaḥ । svadharmān nānutiṣṭhanti te dvijā vaiśyatāṁ gatāḥ ॥ 12 ॥

Meaning: Those who accepted cattle rearing and farming as the means of livelihood due to which their colour turned yellow and who abandoned the duties of a brahmana attained the Varna of Vaishya.

हिंसानृतप्रिया लुब्धाः सर्वकर्मोपजीविनः । कृष्णाः शौचपरिभ्रष्टास्ते द्विजाः शूद्रतां गताः ॥ १३ ॥

hiṁsānr̥tapriyā lubdhāḥ sarvakarmopajīvinaḥ । kr̥ṣṇāḥ śaucaparibhraṣṭāste dvijāḥ śūdratāṁ gatāḥ ॥ 13 ॥

Meaning: Those who deviated from cleanliness and good behaviour and favoured violence and untruth, and took up livelihood involving actions that are not praiseworthy due to greed and thereby had their bodies turn black, (those brahmanas) attained the Shudra Varna.

इत्येतैः कर्मभिर्व्यस्ता द्विजा वर्णान्तरं गताः । धर्मो यज्ञक्रिया तेषां न नित्यं न प्रतिषिध्यते ॥ १४ ॥

ityetaiḥ karmabhirvyastā dvijā varṇāntaraṁ gatāḥ । dharmo yajñakriyā teṣāṁ na nityaṁ na pratiṣidhyate ॥ 14 ॥

Meaning : This is how due to the karmas (activities) those brahmanas got separated from their brahmanatva and attained the various Varnas. However, they have not been denied adherence to dharma and performance of Yajnas in day to day life.

गीतायां वर्णः ॥ Varna in the Gita

In line with the above context, the Bhagavad Gita also speaks about creation of four varna-s based on guna (natural qualities and tendencies) and karma (personal duties) (verse 4.13).

चातुर्वर्ण्यं मया सृष्टं गुणकर्मविभागशः | cāturvarṇyaṁ mayā sr̥ṣṭaṁ guṇakarmavibhāgaśaḥ ।

and that the duties have been allotted based on the guṇa-s that arise from svabhava (verse 18.41).

ब्राह्मणक्षत्रियविशां शूद्राणां च परन्तप । कर्माणि प्रविभक्तानि स्वभावप्रभवैर्गुणैः ॥१८- ४१॥

brāhmaṇakṣatriyaviśāṁ śūdrāṇāṁ ca parantapa । karmāṇi pravibhaktāni svabhāvaprabhavairguṇaiḥ ॥18- 41॥

भागवतपुराणे वर्णः ॥ Varna in Bhagavata Purana

Bhagavata Purana (11.17.13) also stresses that the four varnas that originated from the supreme Purusha are to be recognized/designated by their atmachara (natural activities or personal duties according to inherent nature).

विप्रक्षत्रियविट्शूद्रा मुखबाहूरुपादजाः । वैराजात् पुरुषात् जाता य आत्माचारलक्षणाः ॥ १३ ॥

viprakṣatriyaviṭśūdrā mukhabāhūrupādajāḥ । vairājāt puruṣāt jātā ya ātmācāralakṣaṇāḥ ॥ 13 ॥

वर्णमीमांसा ॥ Varna Mimamsa

From the Rgvedic account of Varna enumerated above, two key hermeneutic principles for understanding and interpreting the meaning of varna and their usages in different Hindu texts can be derived, namely:

1. Quality
2. Function

When these principles (viz quality and function) are applied to individuals, the inner temperaments of an individual called as svabhava will represent the quality or defining factor of the individual whereas the actions and duties in sync with this inner calling (svabhava) called as svadharma will represent the function of the individual. Explaining the interplay between these hermeneutic principles, R. K. Sharma in his work 'Indian Society, Institutions and Change' notes: “within the person svabhava is the guiding principle. One who acts on svabhava acts spontaneously… Thus, following svabhava results in harmony… And the result is happiness…  Svadharma means one’s duties in society. These duties should not be imposed from outside. In order to be natural, spontaneous and divine the duties must be based on svabhava. Thus, svadharma and svabhava should be identical. Svabhava should decide svadharma.”

It is interesting to note that the very terminology of varna embeds within itself these two key features. The term varna is derived from the verbal root ‘vr’, which has a number of meanings, prominent among them being: color and choosing. While the color highlights the aspect of svabhava, the choosing highlights the aspect of svadharma.

Mahabharata (Anushasana Parva, Chapter 143) says, “Neither birth, nor the purificatory rites, nor learning, nor offspring, can be regarded as grounds for conferring upon one the regenerate status. Verily, conduct is the only ground. All brahmanas in this world are brahmanas in consequence of conduct.”

न योनिर्नापि संस्कारो न श्रुतं न च संततिः । कारणानि द्विजत्वस्य वृत्तमेव तु कारणम् ॥५०॥

na yonirnāpi saṁskāro na śrutaṁ na ca saṁtatiḥ । kāraṇāni dvijatvasya vr̥ttameva tu kāraṇam ॥50॥

It further says, “The status of Brahma, O auspicious lady, is equal wherever it exists. Even this is my opinion. He, indeed, is a brahmana in whom the status of Brahma exists,–that condition which is bereft of attributes and which has no stain attached to it.”

ब्राह्मः स्वभावः सुश्रोणिः समः सर्वत्र मे मतिः । निर्गुणं निर्मलं ब्रह्म यत्र तिष्ठति स द्विजः ॥५२॥

brāhmaḥ svabhāvaḥ suśroṇiḥ samaḥ sarvatra me matiḥ । nirguṇaṁ nirmalaṁ brahma yatra tiṣṭhati sa dvijaḥ ॥52॥

Thus, varna can be understood either as a reference to the svadharma (personal duty/purpose of life) chosen by each individual in his/her life according to his/her svabhava (inherent nature) or more appropriately as a descriptor tag referring to the svabhava that drives people to spontaneously choose particular paths of life as their svadharma. Wherein, “spontaneous choosing” is a reference to our inclinations to certain activities, certain professions, which come naturally to us. As B.V.V.Shastry in his work Traditional Taxonomy of Varna - Jati and Kula notes, "Varna refers to unique descriptor tags, unique features which can be used for identification of individual entity for a specific identity.”

Another key principle that can be derived from this account is that the conceptual arrangement of varnas are neither pyramidal, nor hierarchical, as often understood. Talking of a conflation of Varna with Jati it is said, Varna consists of tags and features that add up to define the traits of an individual according to a pre-defined scheme of classification. While, when individuals become a group, the common trait that defines the group is the jati to which the individuals belong. For eg. The ‘appleness’ of an apple is its varna and when you have a bag of apples and oranges, their jati would be fruit. As per this description of varna, there is nothing to suggest any hierarchy in the relationship between different varnas. An apple is different from an orange, not better or worse, objectively speaking.

Just as different limbs of a body perform different function and are vital for the health of the entire organism, different varnas represent different functions in the society as well as in the cosmos with each being vital to the functioning of the whole. If there is a hierarchy, it is only in terms of understanding the goals of life at the level of individuals and not at social level.

वर्णव्यवस्थायाः मुख्याङ्गानि ॥ Key Elements of Varna Vyavastha

The relationship between svabhāva and svadharma are those of cause and effect. But, in this case, in addition to its role as an effect, svadharma also reinforces the cause and ultimately helps an individual to transcend it[16]. That is, while svabhāva determines the svadharmaof an individual, the performance of svadharma will transform the svabhāva from its current condition to a higher condition[17]. As Sureshwaracharya (n.d) notes “From the performance of obligatory actions, righteousness arises. From the arising of righteousness, sins are destroyed and purity of mind ensues[18].” Using this interplay between svabhāva and svadharma, we can identify key elements of varṇa vyavastha and develop a conceptual framework based on it.

In the previous section, we defined varṇa as a reference to the svabhāva that drives people to spontaneously choose their svadharma. To make this a reality then, we would need a social vision, a conceptual framework that facilitates people to first correctly identify their svabhāva-s and then practice relevant svadharma-s. Thus, the key elements of this conceptual framework would be:

1. Identification of the different temperaments of individuals
2. Classification of people at a conceptual level into different groups according to their inherent nature and capacity
3. Assignment of different duties/actions/paths of life most suitable/applicable to each group, such that people belonging to all the groups can attain overall wellbeing by performance of those duties

a. Identification: The very first element required to construct a conceptual social order based on varṇa is a proper “mechanism” using which varṇa of an individual can be identified. And such a mechanism has been provided to us in Bhagavad-gītā, which says that the duties of various varṇa-s are to be classified based on the guṇa-s born from svabhāva (verse 18.41). A similar view has been expressed by Lord Shiva in Mahābhāratam (Anuśāsanaparva, Ch. 143). Thus, “svabhāva” of an individual is the key for identifying the varṇa of that person.

But, this svabhāva of an individual is in-turn determined by two factors: the natural tendencies inherited from one’s parents and the mental impressions (saṃskāra-s) one inherits from previous lives; and both these factors are in-turn dependent on prārabdha karma-s[19]that decide where and in which family a person takes birth into, the life challenges that he or she will be facing in life, etc. It is for this reason, ‘birth’ or ‘janma’ was used as an identifying factor for determining varṇa. But, here the reference is to the ‘prārabdha karma’and the svabhāva one inherits due to prārabdha and not necessarily[20]a reference to being born in a tribe, caste, class, or family.

b. Classification: With guṇa and svabhāva as the identifying factor, Hindu dharma texts have created four conceptual categories: brahmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya and śūdra. Adi Shankaracharya, while commenting on Bhagavad-gītā (4.13 & 18.41) says that brahmaṇa is a designation given to one in whom there is a predominance of sattva; kṣatriya is one in whom there is both sattva and rajas, but rajaspredominates; in vaiśya, both rajas and tamas exist, but rajaspredominates; and śūdra is one in whom both rajas and tamas exist, but tamas predominates. These guṇa-s are revealed by the natural temperaments and behavior exhibited by the person.

Elaborating on this, Bhāgavatapurāṇa (11.17.16-19), lists what temperaments and behavior indicates what varṇa designation to be assigned to a person. It says: the control of mind and senses, austerity, cleanliness, satisfaction, tolerance, simple straightforwardness, devotion to God, mercy, and truthfulness are the natural qualities of the brahmaṇa-s; dynamic power, bodily strength, determination, heroism, forbearance, generosity, great endeavor, steadiness, devotion to the brahmaṇa-s and leadership are the natural qualities of the kṣatriya-s; faith in God and Vedas, dedication to charity, freedom from hypocrisy, service to the brahmaṇa-s and perpetually desiring to accumulate more money are the natural qualities of the vaiśya-s, service without duplicity to others, cows and gods and complete satisfaction with whatever income is obtained in such service, are the natural qualities of śūdra-s.

Therefore, dharmic texts clearly give a wide framework by which people can be designated and classified according to their inherent temperaments. But, this four-fold classification is essentially a conceptual classification based on four ideal svabhāva conditions[21](i.e. having a clear cut svabhāva) and may not always reflect a ground situation, especially in kaliyuga in general and at current times in particular, as society is stratified along caste, profession, and political lines and the concept of guṇa and svadharma no longer drives the society.

Nonetheless, this four-fold guṇa based varṇa and the assignment of ideal duties that a person with a particular svabhāva must practice, will act as general guidelines, which would not only help societies to evolve their own practical models according to their own unique social conditions, it will also help each individual to examine one’s own temperaments and inner leanings and compare and evaluate with respect to four-fold conceptual model and understand where he/she stands in life, such that people may choose their svadharmaaccordingly to attain material and spiritual success.

c. Assignment: After successful identification and classification of the varṇa-s of people, the final stage is the assignment of duties or svadharma for each person according to his/her own inherent temperaments. Bhagavad-gītā (18.42-44) assigns following duties to people exhibiting different varṇa svabhāva. Brahmaṇa-s are assigned: control of the internal and external organs, austerity, purity, forgiveness, straightforwardness, jñāna (Knowledge of the scriptures), vijñāna (experiential understanding of what is presented in the scriptures) and āstikya (faith and conviction in the truth expounded in the scriptures regarding God, etc.), as their duties. Similarly kṣatriya-s are assigned: heroism, boldness, fortitude, capability, and also not retreating from battle, generosity and lordliness; vaiśya-s are assigned: agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade; and śūdra-s are assigned service as their duty.

Manusmṛti (1.88-91) has further elaborated the duties for people having the four varṇa guṇa-s thus- teaching and studying, sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (of alms) as duties of brahmaṇa-s; protection of the people, giving charity, to offer sacrifices (yajña), to study (the veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures as duties of kṣatriya-s, to tend cattle, giving charity, to offer sacrifices, to study (the veda), to trade, to lend money, and to cultivate land, are the duties of vaiśya; and serving the other varṇa-s, i.e. rest of the society by means of various professions[22] like arts, sculpture making, wood carving, etc.

It is clear from the above discussion that the duties assigned to people are a) in sync with their inherent temperaments, b) duties further seek to reinforce and strengthen the already present inner talents and temperaments, c) through performance of these duties, though different for different persons, all will attain complete success and overall welfare[23].

It is also clear that, contrary to popular understanding, varṇa does not refer to any particular vocation. Instead it provides guidelines of a general nature regarding suitable duties for people with different temperaments, which they can in-turn implement through choosing any of the vocations, which are in sync with their svadharma[24]. In other words, varṇa grouping is clearly a conceptual classification and has no direct connection to kula-s or clan groupings based on trade and skills. Similarly, varṇa grouping is not related to ethno-cultural jāti[25] groupings or the colonial formulation of castes[26].

However, it must be conceded that whenever a practical social model is derived from this conceptual framework of Varṇa, it is bound to result in overlapping with different social groupings and identities: be it social-economic groups, ethno-cultural groups (jāti), or groups based on clans and/or professions (kula). But, the mere presence of such overlapping does not mean that varṇa based social model will become identical to social stratification along the lines of castes, jāti, or kula. Instead, Bhāgavatapurāṇa (7.11.35) explicitly states that a person’s guṇa must be the driving factor behind assignment of a particular varṇa to him, irrespective of the social class, he is born into. That is, meritocracy will the central driving force of such a Varṇa-based social order.

Thus, it is important to distinguish the conceptual framework of varṇaenunciated in the paper from different social groupings like kula, jāti, and caste present in the society. And it is also vital to recognize that any practical social model constructed with varṇa as a basis will have to evolve means to address these social stratifications.

विषयविस्तारः ॥ Subject Matter

ब्राह्मणः ॥ Brahmana

According to Manusmrti, the duties prescribed for a brahmana include

अध्यापनं अध्ययनं यजनं याजनं तथा । दानं प्रतिग्रहं चैव ब्राह्मणानां अकल्पयत् । । १.८८ । ।

adhyāpanaṁ adhyayanaṁ yajanaṁ yājanaṁ tathā ।dānaṁ pratigrahaṁ caiva brāhmaṇānāṁ akalpayat । । 1.88 । ।

Meaning: For the Brāhmaṇas he ordained teaching, studying, sacrificing and officiating at sacrifices, as also the giving and accepting of gifts (1.88). Talking of the importance of adhering to the Brahmana Varna Dharma, Manusmrti says,

आचारः परमो धर्मः श्रुत्युक्तः स्मार्त एव च । तस्मादस्मिन्सदा युक्तो नित्यं स्यादात्मवान्द्विजः । । १.१०८ । ।

ācāraḥ paramo dharmaḥ śrutyuktaḥ smārta eva ca । tasmādasminsadā yukto nityaṁ syādātmavāndvijaḥ । । 1.108 । ।

Meaning: Morality (Right Behaviour) is highest Dharma; that which is prescribed in the shruti and laid down in the Smrti. Hence the twice-born person, desiring the welfare of his soul, should be always intent upon Right Behaviour (1.108). It says, the Brahmana studying these institutes, and (thence) discharging all prescribed duties, is never defiled by dosha (accusation) of commission (or omission), proceeding from mind, speech or body (1.104). The Brahmana who departs from Right Behaviour, does not obtain the fruit of the Veda; he however who is equipped with Right Behaviour obtains the full reward (1.109).

इदं शास्त्रं अधीयानो ब्राह्मणः शंसितव्रतः । मनोवाग्गेहजैर्नित्यं कर्मदोषैर्न लिप्यते । । १.१०४ । ।

आचाराद्विच्युतो विप्रो न वेदफलं अश्नुते । आचारेण तु संयुक्तः सम्पूर्णफलभाज्भवेत् । । १.१०९ । ।

idaṁ śāstraṁ adhīyāno brāhmaṇaḥ śaṁsitavrataḥ । manovāggehajairnityaṁ karmadoṣairna lipyate । । 1.104 । ।

ācārādvicyuto vipro na vedaphalaṁ aśnute । ācāreṇa tu saṁyuktaḥ sampūrṇaphalabhājbhavet । । 1.109 । ।

क्षत्रियः ॥ Kshatriya

प्रजानां रक्षणं दानं इज्याध्ययनं एव च । विषयेष्वप्रसक्तिश्च क्षत्रियस्य समासतः । । १.८९ । ।

prajānāṁ rakṣaṇaṁ dānaṁ ijyādhyayanaṁ eva ca ।viṣayeṣvaprasaktiśca kṣatriyasya samāsataḥ । । 1.89 । ।

Meaning: For the Kshatriya he ordained protecting of the people, giving of gifts, sacrificing and studying, as also abstaining prom being addicted to the objects of sense (1.89).

वैश्यः ॥ Vaishya

पशूनां रक्षणं दानं इज्याध्ययनं एव च । वणिक्पथं कुसीदं च वैश्यस्य कृषिं एव च । । १.९० । ।

paśūnāṁ rakṣaṇaṁ dānaṁ ijyādhyayanaṁ eva ca । vaṇikpathaṁ kusīdaṁ ca vaiśyasya kr̥ṣiṁ eva ca । । 1.90 । ।

Meaning: For the Vaishya, tending of cattle, giving of gifts, sacrificing and studying; as also trade, money-lending and cultivating of land (1.90).

Another key principle that can be derived from this account is that the conceptual arrangement of varna-s are neither pyramidal, nor hierarchical, as often understood. Just as different limbs of a body perform different function and are vital for the health of the entire organism, different varna-s represent different functions in the society as well as in the cosmos with each being vital to the functioning of the whole. If there is a hierarchy, it is only in terms of understanding the goals of life at the level of individuals and not at social level.