Vedic Language (वैदिकभाषा)

The subject of Vedic interpretation is highly technical requiring a specialized knowledge of not only the language of the Vedas but also the vast Vedic and post-Vedic literature together with a thorough grounding in the exegetical, grammatical, religious, cultural, philosophical, philological, lexicographical, mythological, and historical studies connected with them.

Although there are numerous apparent similarities between vedic language and classical sanskrit, the difference between them in respect to grammar, vocabulary, style, matter and spirit are very conspicuous.

परिचयः || Introduction

When we presume that Samskrit is the language of Veda, we get into trouble in understanding the text. There is difficulty in understanding the meanings of words and sentences. Even those words which appear to be common to both the languages denote different meanings in the earlier Vedic language and the later sanskrit language.

शब्दः || Words

For instance, the words svāhā (स्वाहा), svadhā (स्वधा), and vaṣaṭ (वषट्) are very common in Veda but their precise meaning is not known.

• स्वाहा॒ स्तोम॑स्य वर्धना॒ प्र क॑वी धी॒तिभि॑र्नरा | svāhā stomasya vardhanā pra kavī dhītibhir narā | (Rig.Veda. 8.8.5)
• यज्ञोवै स्वाहाकारः | yajñovai svāhākāraḥ | (Shat. Brah. 3.1.3.27)
• वषट्कारेण जुहुयात् वषट्कारेव | vaṣaṭkāreṇa juhuyāt vaṣaṭkāreva (Shat. Brah. 7.2.3)

What these sentences mean can be fully understood, only when the exact meaning of the words svāhā (स्वाहा), svadhā (स्वधा), and vaṣaṭ (वषट्) are known.

अर्थाः|| Meanings

Apart from the unique words seen in vedic texts, some words such as those below are seen both in Vedic and Classical texts but with different meanings.

Word	Meaning in Vedic Samskrit	Reference	Meaning in Classical Samskrit
Sachi (शची)	Speech, Skill and Activity	One of the सप्तपंचाशत् वाङ्नामानि | ११ | (Nighantu 1.11) One of the एकादश प्रज्ञानामानि | ९ | (Nighantu 3.9) One of the षड्विंशतिः कर्मनामानि | १ | (Nighantu 2.1)	Wife of Indra (Chief of Devatas)
Ashma (अश्मः)	Mountains and Clouds	अश्मः, पुं, पर्ब्बतः । मेघः । वैदिकशब्दोऽयं ॥	Stone (पाषाणः, शिला)
Gaya (गयः)	House, Progeny, Wealth	One of the द्वाविंशतिः गृहनामानि | ४ | (Nighantu 3.4) One of the पञ्चदश अपत्यनामानि | २ | (Nighantu 2.2) One of the अष्ताविंशतिः एव धननामानि | १० | (Nighantu 2.10)	Name of an Asura (असुरभेदः), Place called Gaya (गयाप्रदेशः)

Some Vedic words like mūtram (मूत्रम्), purīṣam (पुरीषम्) etc. even convey repugnant or repulsive meanings. By quoting Sanskrit meanings, some of the modern writers are even entering the area of pornography in explaining Vedic statements.

वाक्यानि|| Sentences

• मा छन्दः॑ | mā chandaḥ (Tait. Samh. 4.3.7)
• अन्नं॒ वै च॒न्द्रमाः॑ | annaṁ vai chandramāḥ (Tait. Brah. 3.2.3)
• स॒हस्र॑शृङ्गो वृष॒भो जा॒तवे॑दाः | sahasraśr̥ṅgō vr̥ṣabhō jātavēdāḥ (Tait. Brah. 3.7.2)

Unless we know the meaning of each word in these sentences, we cannot even guess what the sentences mean. If we consider them as Sanskrit words, translated sentences will not convey convincing meanings.

विचारः|| Thought

• अ॒ग्निम॒भिप॑वते | अ॒ग्निम॒भिसंप॑वते | agnimabhipavate | agnimabhisaṁpavate | (Tait. Brah. 2.3.9)

Is there any significant difference in the above two statements? Does the Mantra need repetition to just add an adverb, saṁ (सम्) (Upasarga) to the verb ‘pavate (पवते)’, when latter sentence alone could have done the job, particularly when we know Veda uses minimum words with maximum efficiency?

• म॒नो॑ गायत्रि॒यै | गा॒य॒त्री त्रिष्टुभे॑ | त्रि॒ष्टुब्जग॑त्यै | जग॑त्यनु॒ष्टुभे॑ | manō gāyatriyai | gāyatrī triṣṭubhē | triṣṭubjagatyai | jagatyanuṣṭubhē | (Tait. Brah. 3.7.6)

What is the underlying thought?

• वाचेन्नम् |‍ ब्रह्मण ओदनम् | vācēnnam |‍ brahmaṇa ōdanam | (Tait. Aran. 3.10)

What is Veda conveying in these two sentences?

अक्षरम् || Akshara

It looks a like a single Akṣara makes a difference in the meaning of the same word and same r̥k (ऋक्), in different sections of Veda:

iḷāmagnē | इळामग्ने | (Rig. Veda. 3.1.23)	iḍāmagnē | इडामग्ने | (Tait. Samh. 4.2.4)
parīṇasō | परीणसो | (Rig. Veda. 8.84.7)	parīṇasi | परीणसि | (Sama. Samh. pūrv. arcika. 34)
pra yaṁ rāyē | प्र यं राये | (Rig. Veda. 8.103.4)	pra yō rāyē | प्र यो राये | (Sama. Samh. pūrv. arcika. 58)
yātyagnirā | यात्यग्निरा | (Rig. Veda. 10.8.1)	bhātyagnirā | भात्यग्निरा | (Atha. Veda. 18.3.65 & Tait. Aran. 6.3.1)

How to explain the change of akṣaras, when the texts are being carried from the very beginning, to this day without any distortion by oral tradition?

 svarga (स्वर्ग) is the word used in all the other three Veda saṁhitas but in Yajurveda saṁhita alone, it is replaced by suvarga (सुवर्ग). Does adding a simple vowel u (उ) make a great difference?

Different Language

These variations suggest that Vedic language is different from conventional languages, we know and use. Veda talks about the importance of akṣara at many places. There are many r̥ks (ऋक्) and Yajus mantras emphasizing the importance of akṣara. 11th  anuvāka of 7th praśna in 1st kāṇḍa of Taittirīya samhita is all about akṣaras, starting with

अग्निरेकाक्षरेण वाच मुदजयत् | agnirekākṣareṇa vācha mudajayat

There are r̥ks with a single akṣara as a complete word:

ऊ॒र्ध्व ऊ॒ षु णो॑ अध्वरस्य होत॒रग्ने॒ तिष्ठ॑ दे॒वता॑ता॒ यजी॑यान् । (Rig. Veda. 4.6.1)

 ūrdhva ū ṣu ṇo adhvarasya hotar agne tiṣṭha devatātā yajīyān |

How can one get to understand the r̥k without knowing the meaning of single akṣara – words?

Earlier Vedic scholars (Shaunaka, being one of them) wrote books on the language structure of Veda. They are called prātiśākhya granthas. Each one of those books deals at length about akṣara. Hence we have to look at our speech system, the source of all akṣaras to understand Vedic language.

Vedic Language Characteristics

The following are the important features of Vedic Samskrit which differentiates it from the Samskrita bhasha that has been in vogue since recent centuries.

स्वराः Svaras

• The presence of Udatta and other svaras in vaidika bhasha is a foremost differentiating feature from traditional Samskrit.
• Usage of Svaras gives a musical tinge to the veda mantras, while such an attempt in traditional samskrit is not seen (chandas is applicable).

मात्रा Matra

• The time of utterance (उच्चारण) of a syllable is called Matra (मात्रा). In vaidika samskrit - Hrasva (ह्रस्वः) Deergha (दीर्घः) Pluta (प्लुतः) kinds of utterances are available but Pluta is gradually lost in present day samskrit language.

वर्णः Varnas

• Consonant ' ळ ' as in इळामग्ने, क Jihvamuliya (जिह्वामूलीयः) and प Upadmaniya (उपध्मानीयः) are distinct sounds in vaidika samskrit which are not in usage now. ' ळ ' and ' ळ्ह ' and the rules for their conversion to ड and ढ are described in Rig Pratisakhya. These vyanjanas are commonly seen only in Rigveda and not in other vedas also. (Pratisakhya Sutra given on Page 555 of Reference )
• ' ॡ ' varnas are seen in vaidkika samskrit, which are lost in traditional samskrit works.
• अच् varnas when are present at the end of the word (अवसान वर्णः) are transformed into अनुनासिक varnas except in Shakala shaka. Example : ईड्यो॒ नूत॑नैरु॒तँ। (Rig. Veda. 1.1.2) (Pratisakhya Sutra given on Page 554 of Reference )
• Doubling of consonants (द्वित्वम्) are seen in vaidika samskrit under various contexts which is not described by the grammatical rules of traditional samskrit.
• Svarabhakti (स्वरभक्तिः) and Abhinidhana (अभिनिधानम्) are grammatical processes where combined varnas (संयुक्तवर्णाः) are broken down for clarity of pronunciation.
• Vyuha (व्यूह) and Vyavaya (व्यवाय) : Vyuha means separation. The process of separation of combined letters to accommodate the appropriate metrical construction (chandas) in a pada of mantra is called Vyuha. Vyavaya (means interval) is a similar process applicable to combined letters containing y(य्)-v (व्)-r (र्)-l (ल्) which are separated to allow proper metrical composition.

सन्धिः Sandhi

Vaidika and Loukika samskrita are similar in their sandhi constructs with few different sandhis in vaidika samskrit.

• Deergha (दीर्घ) sandhi, guna (गुण) sandhi, and vriddhi (वृद्धि) sandhi are called प्रश्लिष्ट सन्धिः, and yan (यण) sandhi of loukika sandhi is called Kshaipra (क्षैप्र) sandhi.
• Abhinihita (अभिनिहित सन्धिः) Padavritti (पदवृत्ति सन्धिः), Udgraha (उद्ग्राह सन्धिः) and Bhugna (भुग्न सन्धिः) are a few sandhis that are only seen in vaidika bhasha.
• Some others like Prakrutibhava and Visarga sandhis have similar rules both in vaidika and loukika bhasha with additional rules in vaidika bhasha.

विभक्तिः Vibhakti

Vaidika and loukika word forms or Vibhaktis are similar with some additional rules applicable to vaidika word forms. Examples

• In shabdas ending with a (अकारान्त), their Prathama vibhakti (प्रथमाविभक्तिः बहुवचनम्) plural forms end in आः and आसः like in सोभ्यासः and ते अ॑ज्ये॒ष्ठा अक॑निष्ठासः | (Rig. Veda. 5.59.6).
• In shabdas ending with a (अकारान्त), their Tritiya vibhakti (तृतीयाविभक्तिः बहुवचनम्) plural forms end in ऐः and एभिः like in आदि॒त्यैर्या॑तमश्विना (Rig. Veda. 8.35.13) and अङ्गि॑रोभि॒रा ग॑हि य॒ज्ञिये॑भिः |(Rig. Veda. 10.14.5)
• In place of a word form having any vibhakti and vachana, the Prathama Ekavachana form can be replaced, which is a very unique rule seen for vaidika words. Example : अनृक्षरा ऋजवः सन्तु पन्थाः | In Rigveda the plural for पथिन् is पन्थाः
• Usage of stem forms (pratipadika) in place of any particular word in any vibhakti is another unique rule seen in vedic grammar. For example : आद्रे चर्मन् | Here चर्मन् is the stem for चर्मणि and used in its place.
• Sometimes in place of a vibhakti in a word any one of आ, आत्, ए, या, and ई are added.

Vaidika Aksharas

When we speak or hear, the speech sounds are akṣaras. When we put them to writing their name is alphabet. Vedic alphabet is shown below as per their articulation points in the speaking machine (mouth):

1		2	3	4	5	6		7	8
Vowels (प्राण)		Consonants (स्पर्श)						ऊष्म	अन्तःस्थ
a (अ)		ka (क)	ca (च)	ṭa (ट)	ta (त)	pa (प)		ha (ह)	ya (य)
i (इ)		ga (ग)	ja (ज)	ḍa (ड)	da (द)	ba (ब)		ṣa (ष)	ra (र)
u (उ)		ṅa (ङ)	Ña (ञ)	ṇa (ण)	na (न)	ma (म)		śa (श)	la (ल)
								sa (स)	va (व)

1. The arrangement of the positions of articulation in the mouth, either from left to right or from top to bottom is shown above. Every one can verify for himself / herself the arrangement.
2. Main Vowels only are shown as the remaining vowels are just combinations of the prime vowels:

   a + i = e (अ +‍ इ = ए)

   a + u = ō (अ +‍उ = ओ)

   a + e = ai (अ +‍ ए = ऐ)‍

   a + ō = au (अ +‍ ओ = औ)‍ and

   a + a = ā (अ +‍अ = आ);  i + i = ī (इ + इ = ई);  u + u = ū (उ +‍उ = ऊ)

3. Only articulation points (and not all akṣaras) are shown. The akṣara kha (ख) has no separate point of touch. The articulation point is the same as ka. Similar is the case with other aspirants – cha, jha etc.
4. Vowel "a" is added to each consonant (k – क् – k + a = ka – क् +‍अ = क) to make it an akṣara. Combination of vowel and the consonant results in an akṣara, a separate recognizable sound unit. This automatic combining capability of both the vowel and consonant is innate in every man. Consonant sound alone cannot be sustained for more than half mātra duration (mātra is the time period required to utter an akṣara  to be clearly audible and recognizable). Veda calls this natural union, saṁhita. It is the vowel sound that gives prāṇa – life and makes the consonant stand the full matra period. The vowel – consonant combination is the fundamental saṁhita on which the entire speech system depends.
5. The live energetic vibrant akṣara matrix, embedded in the mouth of every human being, is the basis on which the Vedic language is built.
6. When we look at the matrix, we notice an orderly system in the arrangement of the akṣara positions:
   • There are three main rows with eight akṣaras in each row and a fourth subsidiary one with two akṣaras.
   • If we look from top to bottom, they are separated into three broad groups, vowels in the left (1 column), consonant (stops) akṣaras in the center (5 columns). The last two column (7th & 8th) are different from both vowels and stops. Sanskrit linguists call 7th column akṣaras ūṣma (ऊष्म) type and of the 8th column, antaḥstha (अन्तःस्थ) type. The ūṣma – akṣaras require more air to utter. The nature of effort to pronounce antaḥstha akṣara is different from that all other types. Sanskrit grammar texts refer consonants in the middle as sparśa (स्पर्श) akṣaras and the Vowels as prāṇa (प्राण) akṣaras.
   • Vowel speaking area is spread from the throat to the lips and indicates the boundaries of the speaking machine. Similarly the limits of active area for of each group is clear, both in length and breadth from the orderly arrangement of the articulation points in the mouth.
   • The sparśa akṣaras are in three horizontal lines. First line consists of akṣaras with minimum resonance, the second with those of higher resonance and the last highest resonance. (Nasal sounds) .
   • The arrangement is so scientific and perfect, that the tongue can jump to any point and pick up the consonant before the vowel sound comes to join.

Vedic Padam

In Sanskrit and other languages only word has a meaning but not its component akṣaras. Vedic word (पदम्) is a combination of Vedic akṣaras. The meaning of the word is summation of their individual meanings. The meaning of the word can be deduced by linking the meanings of individual akṣaras in a logical way.

akṣaram is a Vedic word. It in itself is a combination (saṁhita) of the following akṣaras:

• All the svaras (vowels) we can speak are represented by a – अ
• All sparśa-akṣaras (stops) are represented by k – क्
• All ūṣma-akṣaras (aspirants) by ṣa – ष
• All antaḥstha akṣaras (semivowels) by ra – र
• All nāsikya akṣaras (nasals) by ṁ – म्

Saṁhita’s capability is indicated by compound akṣara kṣa – क्ष. The word not only indicates all the audio capsules which mouth can produce, but also its saṁhita capability. The word akṣara literally means what it sounds!

One more example to indicate how Vedic words are coined. ōm is a very common word in Veda and ōm iti ekākṣaraṁ brahma – ॐ इति एकाक्षरं ब्रह्म is an oft quoted sentence from Veda. akṣara ō – ओ is the result of combining vowels a – अ and u – उ. Thus, ōm represents Brahma through its manifestation, having the properties of a – अ, u – उ and ṁ – म्.

Discussion

An interesting question raised by Shri. Achyut Karve, that has been raised and discussed in the Bharatiya Vidvat Parishad is : " Is vedic language a tongue of any particular group viz. ethnic, geographical or of any particular race?"

A few thoughts of Sri. Rayalu Viswanatha, regarding Aksharas

Akshara in Vedic language

How does Veda apportion meaning to each akṣara?

Every akṣara has a specific and significant position in the matrix. Also nature and intensity of effort involved in uttering, differ from akṣara to akṣara and also from one group to another. All the variations and characteristics of each akṣara are reflected in its meaning.

Our life is a continuum of actions and events. Area of articulation is the main area where actions and events are taking place. Every action is an yajña. Satapatha Brāhmana says vāg‍hi yajñaḥ – वाग्‍हि यज्ञः, i.e., our ideas, intentions and desires are converted into akṣaras is the yajña śāla – the place of action. The speech action is representative of all actions in our life.

The sparśa akṣaras are in three rows. Human existence has three aspects. First one refers to activities associated with our daily routine. The second one is connected with our ideals, dreams, goals and emotions. The third is the world of knowledge, thinking and awareness. Akṣaras in the three rows are correspondingly used in Vedic language. All nāsikyas (nasal sound are used to identify and describe the various jñana activities. The akṣara ma (म), last in the line, is reserved for mind (manas) .

The ūshma aksharas are used to identify prāna area (forces responsible for living).

Man has four traits. Four antaḥstha akṣaras are used for the four traits as given below:

1. Man always does one thing or the other— (ya – य) .
2. He is an individual, separate jīva — (ra – र) .
3. He is not the same individual but a different one when he is dreaming to achieve his / her goals, gripped by deva bhāva — (la – ल).
4. Can speak to express himself, vāk — (va – व) .

We can see that the matrix is the miniature audio picture of man himself and Vedic language expands it into a full-blown audio picture.

Examples of actual use

Vowels are spread over the entire yajña śāla. The akṣara a – अ is located at the entrance, i – इ in the middle and u – उ at the end. They are taking part in the formation of every akṣara. They represent the time and the potential needed for the yajña.

Broadly there are three stages of time for any incident or event (yajña) – past, present and future. Veda attributes the three stages to the three prime vowels  a – अ, i – इ and u – उ respectively since their positions of articulation are in the same order. a – अ is also used for the ever-present tense since when we open our mouth to speak, first sound that comes out is that of a – अ and is present when other vowels are not in operation.

• agnim īḻe purohitaṁ | अ॒ग्निमी॑ळे पु॒रोहि॑तं |

The above is the first sentence of Rigveda and agni is the first Word. The word starts with a – अ. So agni is ever present. The word ends in i – इ. The word agni is now being used in the yajña. Whatever may be the meaning of the word, two features of the object meant by the word agni are clear. Rigveda starts with agni, the ever present force and constantly in use with every yajña (action) . Rigveda deals with all aspects of yajña up to the point of start. yajñas in Veda cover the entire spectrum of actions in life and the resulting behavior. yajña is an attempt to improve ourselves from the existing state. When the yajña is completed successfully, the driving force agni, invoked for the purpose becomes a part of us. Then it will be agna and NOT agni. So Sama Veda which deals with final stages of yajña starts with the word agna  – agna āyāhi vītaye – अ॑ग्न॒ आया॑हि वी॒तयॆ॑ ( Sama. Samh.1). Agni, the driving force of the achievement has become agna, ever present in us as a new capability achieved. But for the change of vowels in this word, we will not know the two different states of Agni.

i – इ indicates present tense (time during which yajña is conducted) and u – उ,the future. Yajur veda, which describes implementation of procedures in detail, begins with both these vowels in the first two sentences.

• iṣetvorjetvā – iṣe tvā + ūrje tvā | इ॒षॆत्वॊ॒र्जॆत्वा॑ – इषॆ त्वा + ऊर्जॆ त्वा |

All our actions (yajñas) are only with a purpose to achieve iṣa – our present requirement, hence starts with vowel i – इ. The word ūrja is our hopefully achievable future wants and has to start with u – उ. The two sentences are combined into one (saṁhita) to indicate that human nature is to keep an eye on future while working for the present!