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== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

[[File:Pramana Table.jpg|border|right|frameless|475x475px|Pramanas Accepted by Various Darshana Shastras]]

[[File:Pramanas.jpg|border|right|frameless|482x482px|Pramanas Accepted by Various Darshana Shastras]]

[[Pramana (प्रमाणम्)|Pramana]], the instrument of valid cognition is one of the most unique concepts that have originated on Bharatavarsha. As we see in the table, all Astika darshanas admit at least three of the [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]] accepted namely, Pratyaksha, Anumana and Shabda.  

[[Pramana (प्रमाणम्)|Pramana]], the instrument of valid cognition is one of the most unique concepts that have originated on Bharatavarsha. As we see in the table, all Astika darshanas admit at least three of the [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]] accepted namely, Pratyaksha, Anumana and Shabda.  

==Samkhya (3 Pramanas)==

==Samkhya (3 Pramanas)==

Samkhya admits 3 Pramanas and their lakshanas are discussed in the sutras as given below<blockquote>यत् संबद्धं सत् तदाकारोल्लेखि विज्ञानं तत् प्रत्यक्षं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.८९ । (प्रत्यक्षलक्षणं)</blockquote>Perception (pratyakska) is that discernment which, being in conjunction (with the thing perceived), portrays the form thereof.<blockquote>प्रतिबन्धदृशः प्रतिबद्धज्ञानमनुमानं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.१०० । (अनुमान लक्षणं)</blockquote>The knowledge of the connected (e.g., fire), through perception of the connexion (e.g., of fire with smoke), is inference.<blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः । सांख्यसूत्र-१.१०१ । (शब्द लक्षणं)</blockquote>Testimony (such as is entitled to the name of evidence, is a declaration by one worthy (to be believed).   

Samkhya and Yoga concepts of pramana are different and original from the others such as those given by Nyaya. Samkhya admits 3 Pramanas and their lakshanas are discussed in the sutras as given below<blockquote>यत् संबद्धं सत् तदाकारोल्लेखि विज्ञानं तत् प्रत्यक्षं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.८९ । (प्रत्यक्षलक्षणं)<ref name=":3">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Sutras]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>yat saṁbaddhaṁ sat tadākārōllēkhi vijñānaṁ tat pratyakṣaṁ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.89 । (pratyakṣalakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>Pratyaksha (perception) is that discernment which, being in conjunction (with the thing perceived), portrays the form just as it is perceived.<blockquote>प्रतिबन्धदृशः प्रतिबद्धज्ञानमनुमानं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.१०० । (अनुमान लक्षणं)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote><blockquote>pratibandhadr̥śaḥ pratibaddhajñānamanumānaṁ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.100 । (anumāna lakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>The knowledge of the connected object (e.g., fire), through perception of the connecting aspect (e.g., of fire with smoke), is Anumana pramana (Inference).<blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः । सांख्यसूत्र-१.१०१ । (शब्द लक्षणं)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote><blockquote>āptōpadēśaḥ śabdaḥ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.101 । (śabda lakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>Aptopadesa (the specific words or testimony) is a declaration by one worthy (to be believed) and constitutes Shabda Pramana (Verbal Testimony).   

Samkhya Karikas also explain the 3 pramanas accepted as seen in the Karika below.<ref name=":4">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft/page/n117 The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref><blockquote>दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनं च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धि: प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ (Samk. Kari. 4)<ref name=":5">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE Karikas]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>dr̥ṣṭamanumānamāptavacanaṁ ca sarvapramāṇasiddhatvāt । trividhaṁ pramāṇamiṣṭaṁ prameyasiddhi: pramāṇāddhi ॥ 4 ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)</blockquote>Pramana or proof being established are intended to be three-fold. From these the Prameya (something to be proved) is established.

 

Samkhya Karikas also explain the 3 pramanas accepted as seen in the Karika below.<ref name=":4">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref><blockquote>दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनं च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धि: प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ (Samk. Kari. 4)<ref name=":5">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE Karikas]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>dr̥ṣṭamanumānamāptavacanaṁ ca sarvapramāṇasiddhatvāt । trividhaṁ pramāṇamiṣṭaṁ prameyasiddhi: pramāṇāddhi ॥ 4 ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)</blockquote>

*प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणाः || pratyaksha-pramana (perception)

*प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणाः || pratyaksha-pramana (perception)

*अनुमानप्रमाणाः  || anumana-pramana (inference)

*अनुमानप्रमाणाः  || anumana-pramana (inference)

*आप्तवचनम्  || aptavacana (word/testimony of reliable sources) Vachana being शब्दप्रमाणाः । sabda-pramana.  

*आप्तवचनम्  || aptavacana (word/testimony of reliable sources) Vachana being शब्दप्रमाणाः । sabda-pramana.  

==Yoga (3 Pramanas)==

==Yoga (3 Pramanas)==

Yoga Darshana accepts 3 Pramanas as given by Patanjali with the explanation given by Vyasa.<ref name=":0">Yoga Darshana with Vyasa Bhasya ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_-_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Pada 1])</ref><blockquote>'''प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमाः प्रमाणानि ॥७॥'''</blockquote>Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference) and Agama (Verbal testimony) are Pramanas.

Yoga Darshana similar to Samkhya accepts 3 Pramanas as given by Patanjali with the explanation by Vyasa.<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमाः प्रमाणानि ॥७॥ pratyakṣānumānāgamāḥ pramāṇāni ॥7॥ (Yoga. Sutr. 1.7)<ref name=":0">Yoga Sutras with Vyasa Bhasya ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_-_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Samadhi Pada 1])</ref></blockquote>Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference) and Agama (Verbal testimony) are Pramanas.

====Vyasa Bhasya====

====Vyasa Bhasya====

<blockquote>इन्द्रियप्रणालिकया चित्तस्य बाह्यवस्तूपरागात्तद्विषया सामान्यविशेषात्मनोऽर्थस्य विशेषावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिः प्रत्यक्षं प्रमाणम् । फलमविशिष्टः पौरुषेयश्चित्तवृत्तिबोधः ।</blockquote><blockquote>अनुमेयस्य तुल्यजातीयेष्वनुवृत्तो भिन्नजातीयेभ्यो व्यावृत्तः सम्बन्धो यस्तद्विषया सामान्यावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिरनुमानम् । यथा देशान्तरप्राप्तेर्गतिमच्चन्द्रतारकं चैत्रवत्, विन्ध्यश्चाप्राप्तिरगतिः ।</blockquote><blockquote>आप्तेन दृष्टोऽनुमितः वा अर्थः परत्र स्वबोधसङ्क्रान्तये शब्देनोपदिश्यते । शब्दात्तदर्थविषया वृत्तिः श्रोतुरागमः । यस्याश्रद्धेयार्थो वक्ता न दृष्टानुमितार्थः स आगमः प्लवते ।</blockquote>Summarizing the Vyasa Bhashya given above an object naturally has generic (सामान्या) and specific (विशेषः) attributes. The Pratyaksha pramama considers the specific aspect of the object. Chitta when affected by the external object through the path of sense-organs gives rise to a function with the specific attribute of that object. Such a function is called Pratyaksha pramana. The effect of Pratyaksha pramana ultimately is that the Purusha cognises the function of Chitta (चित्तवृत्तिबोधः).<ref>Yoga Sutras with Vyasa Bhashyam ([https://archive.org/details/YogaSutrasOfPatanjaliBhashyaOfVyasaGanganathaJha1907/page/n29 Pada 1])</ref>

<blockquote>इन्द्रियप्रणालिकया चित्तस्य बाह्यवस्तूपरागात्तद्विषया सामान्यविशेषात्मनोऽर्थस्य विशेषावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिः प्रत्यक्षं प्रमाणम् । फलमविशिष्टः पौरुषेयश्चित्तवृत्तिबोधः ।</blockquote><blockquote>अनुमेयस्य तुल्यजातीयेष्वनुवृत्तो भिन्नजातीयेभ्यो व्यावृत्तः सम्बन्धो यस्तद्विषया सामान्यावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिरनुमानम् । यथा देशान्तरप्राप्तेर्गतिमच्चन्द्रतारकं चैत्रवत्, विन्ध्यश्चाप्राप्तिरगतिः ।</blockquote><blockquote>आप्तेन दृष्टोऽनुमितः वा अर्थः परत्र स्वबोधसङ्क्रान्तये शब्देनोपदिश्यते । शब्दात्तदर्थविषया वृत्तिः श्रोतुरागमः । यस्याश्रद्धेयार्थो वक्ता न दृष्टानुमितार्थः स आगमः प्लवते । (Vyay. Bhas. for Yoga. Sutr. 1.7)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Summarizing the Vyasa Bhashya given above an object naturally has generic (सामान्या) and specific (विशेषः) attributes. The Pratyaksha pramama considers the specific aspect of the object. Chitta when affected by the external object through the path of sense-organs gives rise to a function with the specific attribute of that object. Such a function is called Pratyaksha pramana. The effect of Pratyaksha pramana ultimately is that the Purusha cognises the function of Chitta (चित्तवृत्तिबोधः).<ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1907) The Yoga Darsana. The Sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa. Translated into English with Notes ([https://archive.org/details/YogaSutrasOfPatanjaliBhashyaOfVyasaGanganathaJha1907/page/n29 Pada 1])</ref>

Further Anumana or Inference is explained. There is a certain relationship which is common (अनुवृत्तिः) to all homogenous objects (तुल्यजातीयेषु) and dissociated (व्यावृत्तः) from the heterogenous ones (भिन्नजातीयेषु). Anumana is that function having the above said relationship for its object concerned chiefly with the ascertainment (अवधारणप्रधाना) of its generic attribute. For e.g. a person, say Chaitra, changes his position only through movement. Similarly when we see planets changing their positions we infer that there is movement, just like in Chaitra, which cannot be perceived. On the other hand, Vidhya mountain does not change its position so we infer that there is no movement.

Further Anumana or Inference is explained. There is a certain relationship which is common (अनुवृत्तिः) to all homogenous objects (तुल्यजातीयेषु) and dissociated (व्यावृत्तः) from the heterogenous ones (भिन्नजातीयेषु). Anumana is that function having the above said relationship for its object concerned chiefly with the ascertainment (अवधारणप्रधाना) of its generic attribute. For e.g. a person, say Chaitra, changes his position only through movement. Similarly when we see planets changing their positions we infer that there is movement, just like in Chaitra, which cannot be perceived. On the other hand, Vidhya mountain does not change its position so we infer that there is no movement.<ref name=":6" />

A certain object, having been either perceived or inferred by an authoritative person, is verbally expressed for the sake of transferring that cognition to another person. Vrtti (function of the object) generated by verbal transfer of cognition is Agama for the listener. That Agama given by an untrustworthy person, who has neither seen nor inferred an object fails.

A certain object, having been either perceived or inferred by an authoritative person, is verbally expressed for the sake of transferring that cognition to another person. Vrtti (function of the object) generated by verbal transfer of cognition is Agama for the listener. That Agama given by an untrustworthy person, who has neither seen nor inferred an object fails.<ref name=":6" />

Yoga holds that pramana is the function of chitta. Samkhya considers knowledge as belonging to buddhi only, which though essentially is insentient, acts like a sentient entity when the sentience of Purusha is reflected upon it. Both these systems offer an original definition of pramana as the function of the buddhi or chitta.

It is to be noted that while Samkhya and other darshanas use the word Shabda Pramana, Yoga uses 'Agama'. Yoga holds that pramana is the function of chitta. Samkhya considers knowledge as belonging to buddhi only, which though essentially is insentient, acts like a sentient entity when the sentience of Purusha is reflected upon it. Both these systems offer an original definition of pramana as the function of the buddhi or chitta.

==Vaiseshika (3 Pramanas)==

==Vaiseshika (3 Pramanas)==

Kanda who occupies the first place  in traceable history of epistemological tradition states that the general definition of pramana should be based on the principle that the cause of cognition should be free from defects  

Kanda who occupies the first place  in traceable history of epistemological tradition states that the general definition of pramana should be based on the principle that the cause of cognition should be free from defects