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The second instrument of valid knowledge is Anumana Pramana.

The second instrument of valid knowledge is Anumana Pramana.

According to Nyaya sutras<blockquote>अथ तत्पूर्वकं त्रिविधं अनुमानं पूर्ववत् शेषवत् सामान्यतोदृष्टं च ।।५।। {अनुमानलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Meaning : After perception comes Inference which is led up to by perception; it is of three kinds - Purvavat (पूर्ववत्), Sheshavat (शेषवत्), and Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्).

==== Gautama Nyaya Sutra 5 ====

<blockquote>अथ तत्पूर्वकं त्रिविधं अनुमानं पूर्ववत् शेषवत् सामान्यतोदृष्टं च ।।५।। {अनुमानलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Meaning : After perception comes Inference which is led up to by perception; it is of three kinds - Purvavat (पूर्ववत्), Sheshavat (शेषवत्), and Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्).

The meaning of the above sutra is explained by Vatsyayana bhashya as follows<blockquote>तत्पूर्वकमित्यनेन लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः संबन्धदर्शनं लिङ्गदर्शनं चाभिसंबध्यते । लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः संबध्द्योर्दर्शनेन लिङ्गस्मृतिरभिसंबध्यते । स्मृत्या लिङ्गदर्शनेन चाऽप्रत्यक्षः अर्थः अनुमीयते । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Meaning : The expression तत्पूर्वकम् meaning 'led up to perception' refers to the darshana (perception obtained through the indriyas and manas) of the relation between the Linga (लिङ्ग । mark) and Lingi (लिङ्गि । object indicated by the mark) and also darshana of Linga itself. The darshana of the relation between linga (mark) and lingi  (object) also implies Smrti (स्मृतिः । remembrance) of linga.  Thus by means of Smrti and darshana of Linga (mark) the Apratyaksha (अप्रत्यक्षः । non-perceptible) object (अर्थः) is inferred (अनुमानम् । anumana). (Page 26 of Reference<ref name=":6" />). Thus anumana depends totally on previous experiences through pratyaksha and this knowledge follows other kinds of knowledge. Example : where there is smoke there is fire.

The meaning of the above sutra is explained by Vatsyayana bhashya as follows<blockquote>तत्पूर्वकमित्यनेन लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः संबन्धदर्शनं लिङ्गदर्शनं चाभिसंबध्यते । लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः संबध्द्योर्दर्शनेन लिङ्गस्मृतिरभिसंबध्यते । स्मृत्या लिङ्गदर्शनेन चाऽप्रत्यक्षः अर्थः अनुमीयते । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Meaning : The expression तत्पूर्वकम् meaning 'led up to perception' refers to the darshana (perception obtained through the indriyas and manas) of the relation between the Linga (लिङ्ग । mark) and Lingi (लिङ्गि । object indicated by the mark) and also darshana of Linga itself. The darshana of the relation between linga (mark) and lingi  (object) also implies Smrti (स्मृतिः । remembrance) of linga.  Thus by means of Smrti and darshana of Linga (mark) the Apratyaksha (अप्रत्यक्षः । non-perceptible) object (अर्थः) is inferred (अनुमानम् । anumana). (Page 26 of Reference<ref name=":6" />). Thus anumana depends totally on previous experiences through pratyaksha and this knowledge follows other kinds of knowledge. Example : where there is smoke there is fire.

Tarkasamgraha defines Anumana as<blockquote>अनुमितिकरणमनुमानम्॥१॥ परामर्शजन्यं ज्ञानमनुमितिः॥२॥ व्याप्तिविशिष्टपक्षधर्मताज्ञानं परामर्शः ।<ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Anumana Nirupana])</ref></blockquote>Anumana is of three kinds with each of them having two definitions with elaborately described examples by Vatsyayana for the Nyaya Sutras given by Gautama.

===Purvavat (पूर्ववत्)===

According to Annambhatta's Tarkasamgraha Anumana is<blockquote>अनुमितिकरणमनुमानम्॥१॥ परामर्शजन्यं ज्ञानमनुमितिः॥२॥ व्याप्तिविशिष्टपक्षधर्मताज्ञानं परामर्शः ।<ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Anumana Nirupana])</ref></blockquote>

 

Anumana is of three kinds with each of them having two definitions with elaborately described examples by Vatsyayana for the Nyaya Sutras given by Gautama.

=====Purvavat (पूर्ववत्)=====

<blockquote>पूर्ववदिति, यत्र कारणेन कार्य्यमनुमीयते। यथा मेधोन्नत्या भविष्यति वृष्टिरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Purvavat Anumana is that in which the effect is inferred from the cause; e.g. when we see the clouds rising, we infer that there will be rain. The cause is 'purva' or prior to the effect ; hence that in which the Anumana is based on the cognition of the cause has been called Purvavat. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>अथवा पूर्ववदिति, यत्र यथा पूर्व्वं प्रत्यक्षभूतयोः अन्यतरदर्शनेन अन्यतरस्य अप्रत्यक्षस्य अनुमानम् । यथा धूमेनाग्निरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Purvavat Anumana is that in which out of two things perceived on some former occasion, perception of one of the two things leads to inference of the other (which is not being perceived); e.g. when fire is inferred from smoke. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

<blockquote>पूर्ववदिति, यत्र कारणेन कार्य्यमनुमीयते। यथा मेधोन्नत्या भविष्यति वृष्टिरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Purvavat Anumana is that in which the effect is inferred from the cause; e.g. when we see the clouds rising, we infer that there will be rain. The cause is 'purva' or prior to the effect ; hence that in which the Anumana is based on the cognition of the cause has been called Purvavat. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>अथवा पूर्ववदिति, यत्र यथा पूर्व्वं प्रत्यक्षभूतयोः अन्यतरदर्शनेन अन्यतरस्य अप्रत्यक्षस्य अनुमानम् । यथा धूमेनाग्निरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Purvavat Anumana is that in which out of two things perceived on some former occasion, perception of one of the two things leads to inference of the other (which is not being perceived); e.g. when fire is inferred from smoke. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

===Sheshavat (शेषवत्)===

=====Sheshavat (शेषवत्)=====

<blockquote>शेषवत् यत्र कार्य्येण कारणमनुमीयते । पूर्व्वोदकविपरीतमुदकं, नद्याः पूर्णत्वमं, शीध्रत्वञ्च दृष्ट्वा स्रोतसोऽनुमीयते भूता वृष्टिरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Sheshavat Anumana is that in which the cause is inferred from the effect; e.g. when we see that the water of the river is not like what it used to be, and that the stream is fuller and the current swifter, we infer that there has been rain in the catchment areas. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>शेषवत् नाम परिशेषः, स च प्रसक्तप्रतिषेधेऽन्यत्र अप्रसाङ्गात् शिष्यमाणे सम्प्रत्ययः । यथा सदनित्यमित्येवमादिना द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषेण सामान्यविशेषसमवायेभ्यो विभक्तस्य शब्दस्य तस्मिन् द्रव्यकर्मगुणसंशये न द्रव्यमेकद्रव्यत्वात्, न कर्म शब्दान्तरहेतुत्वात्, यस्तु शिष्यते, सोऽयमिति शब्दस्य गुणत्वप्रतिपत्तिः । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>The word sheshavat means remainder; with regard to an object there are certain possibilities - and some of these possibilities are eliminated; and there being no other possibilities - when the remaining possibility is cognised in relation to the said object, this cognition is Sheshavat. e.g. with regard to Sound, we find that it is an real entity (सत्) and is transient (अनित्यमम्) etc; and as these properties (being an entity and being transient etc) are found to be common to Substances (द्रव्यम्), Qualities (गुणः) and Actions (कर्म) only, their presence in Sound distinguishes it from the remaining categories of the Commoness (सामान्यम्), Specialness (विशेष्यम्) and Samavaya (समवाय । Pervasiveness) (all of which are three entities, but eternal). Now there arises a doubt as to whether Sound is a Substance, a Quality or an Action. This doubt is reasoned (by the process of elimination) in the following manner :

<blockquote>शेषवत् यत्र कार्य्येण कारणमनुमीयते । पूर्व्वोदकविपरीतमुदकं, नद्याः पूर्णत्वमं, शीध्रत्वञ्च दृष्ट्वा स्रोतसोऽनुमीयते भूता वृष्टिरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Sheshavat Anumana is that in which the cause is inferred from the effect; e.g. when we see that the water of the river is not like what it used to be, and that the stream is fuller and the current swifter, we infer that there has been rain in the catchment areas. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>शेषवत् नाम परिशेषः, स च प्रसक्तप्रतिषेधेऽन्यत्र अप्रसाङ्गात् शिष्यमाणे सम्प्रत्ययः । यथा सदनित्यमित्येवमादिना द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषेण सामान्यविशेषसमवायेभ्यो विभक्तस्य शब्दस्य तस्मिन् द्रव्यकर्मगुणसंशये न द्रव्यमेकद्रव्यत्वात्, न कर्म शब्दान्तरहेतुत्वात्, यस्तु शिष्यते, सोऽयमिति शब्दस्य गुणत्वप्रतिपत्तिः । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>The word sheshavat means remainder; with regard to an object there are certain possibilities - and some of these possibilities are eliminated; and there being no other possibilities - when the remaining possibility is cognised in relation to the said object, this cognition is Sheshavat. e.g. with regard to Sound, we find that it is an real entity (सत्) and is transient (अनित्यमम्) etc; and as these properties (being an entity and being transient etc) are found to be common to Substances (द्रव्यम्), Qualities (गुणः) and Actions (कर्म) only, their presence in Sound distinguishes it from the remaining categories of the Commoness (सामान्यम्), Specialness (विशेष्यम्) and Samavaya (समवाय । Pervasiveness) (all of which are three entities, but eternal). Now there arises a doubt as to whether Sound is a Substance, a Quality or an Action. This doubt is reasoned (by the process of elimination) in the following manner :

*Sound cannot be a Substance (द्रव्यम्), because it pervades in a single substance (Akasha). No other dravya is pervasive only in one dravya. All Substances are either not inherent in any dravya (e.g. Atman) or inherent in more than one dravya (e.g. a jar).

*Sound cannot be a Substance (द्रव्यम्), because it pervades in a single substance (Akasha). No other dravya is pervasive only in one dravya. All Substances are either not inherent in any dravya (e.g. Atman) or inherent in more than one dravya (e.g. a jar).

*Sound is not an Action (कर्म), because it is the originator of another sound, thus it gives rise to something that is of its own kind which is never the case with any action.

*Sound is not an Action (कर्म), because it is the originator of another sound, thus it gives rise to something that is of its own kind which is never the case with any action.

*Sound is thus a Quality (गुणः) arrived at by the process of elimination of the other two. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

*Sound is thus a Quality (गुणः) arrived at by the process of elimination of the other two. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

===Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्)===

=====Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्)=====

<blockquote>सामान्यतो दृष्टं व्रज्यापूर्वकम् अन्यत्र दृष्टस्य अन्यत्र दर्शनमिति तथा चाऽऽदित्यस्य । तस्मात् अस्ति अप्रत्यक्षा अपि आप्यादित्यस्य व्रज्येति। (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Samanyatodrsta Anumana (is that in which the inference is based on a general observation) e.g. we have observed in all cases that we see a thing in a place different from where we saw it before only when it has moved; from such general observation we infer that the sun must be moving, even though we cannot perceive it. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>सामान्यतो दृष्टं नाम, यत्राप्रत्यक्षे लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः सम्बन्धे केनचिदर्थेन लिङ्गस्य सामान्यादप्रत्यक्षो लिङ्गी गम्यते । यथेच्छादिभिरात्मा । इच्छादयो गुणाः । गुणाश्च द्रव्यसंस्थानाः । तद्यदेषां स्थानं स आत्मेति । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Samanyatodrsta Anumana is that in which, the relation between the Linga and Lingi being Apratyaksha (imperceptible), the imperceptible Lingi is inferred from the similarity of the Linga (mark) to something else. e.g. When the Atma is inferred from Desire etc. Desire etc are a Qualities and Qualities always pervade in substances. Similarity of Desire to other qualities which pervade in substances leads to the Anumana that, that Substance in which Desire pervades is the Atma. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

<blockquote>सामान्यतो दृष्टं व्रज्यापूर्वकम् अन्यत्र दृष्टस्य अन्यत्र दर्शनमिति तथा चाऽऽदित्यस्य । तस्मात् अस्ति अप्रत्यक्षा अपि आप्यादित्यस्य व्रज्येति। (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Samanyatodrsta Anumana (is that in which the inference is based on a general observation) e.g. we have observed in all cases that we see a thing in a place different from where we saw it before only when it has moved; from such general observation we infer that the sun must be moving, even though we cannot perceive it. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>सामान्यतो दृष्टं नाम, यत्राप्रत्यक्षे लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः सम्बन्धे केनचिदर्थेन लिङ्गस्य सामान्यादप्रत्यक्षो लिङ्गी गम्यते । यथेच्छादिभिरात्मा । इच्छादयो गुणाः । गुणाश्च द्रव्यसंस्थानाः । तद्यदेषां स्थानं स आत्मेति । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Samanyatodrsta Anumana is that in which, the relation between the Linga and Lingi being Apratyaksha (imperceptible), the imperceptible Lingi is inferred from the similarity of the Linga (mark) to something else. e.g. When the Atma is inferred from Desire etc. Desire etc are a Qualities and Qualities always pervade in substances. Similarity of Desire to other qualities which pervade in substances leads to the Anumana that, that Substance in which Desire pervades is the Atma. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==Upamana Pramana==

==Upamana Pramana==

The third instrument of knowledge is called Upamana Pramana or Analogy. The knowledge of similarity is generated by Upamana.  This knowledge arises by the use of comparison of two things and the presence of some common factors in a thing. However, the word Upamana has been translated variously as comparison, analogy, identification, knowledge by similarity and knowledge by assimilation. Nyaya sutra of Gautama defines Upamana as below<blockquote>प्रसिद्धसाधर्म्यात्साध्यसाधनं उपमानम् ।। ६ ।। {उपमानलक्षणम्}<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Upamana (Analogy ) is that which accomplishes its purpose through similarity to a known object

The third instrument of knowledge is called Upamana Pramana or Analogy. The knowledge of similarity is generated by Upamana.  This knowledge arises by the use of comparison of two things and the presence of some common factors in a thing.  

 

 

However, the word Upamana has been translated variously as comparison, analogy, identification, knowledge by similarity and knowledge by assimilation.  

Vatsyayana Bhasyam on Nyaya sutra 6 is as follows<blockquote>प्रज्ञातेन सामान्यात्प्रज्ञापनीयस्य प्रज्ञापनमुपमानमिति । यथा गौरेवं गवय इति । यदा खल्वयं गवा समानधर्मं प्रतिपद्यते तदा प्रत्यक्षतस्तमर्थं प्रतिपद्यत इति । समाख्यासम्बन्धप्रतिपत्तिः रूपमानार्थ इत्याह । यथा गौरेवं गवय इत्युपमाने प्रयुक्ते गवा समानधर्ममर्थमिन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षादुपलभमानो अस्य गवयशब्दः संज्ञेति संज्ञासंज्ञिसम्बन्धं  प्रतिपद्यतइति । यथा मुद्गस्तथा मुद्गपर्णि यथा माषस्तथा माषपणि इत्युपमाने प्रयुक्ते उपमानात् संज्ञासंज्ञिसम्बन्धं प्रतिपद्यमानस्तामोषधीं भैषज्यायाहरति । एवमन्यो अप्युपमानस्य लोके विषयो बुभुत्सितव्य इति । (Page 69 and 70 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>It is derived from the words Upa meaning saadrisya or similarity and maana meaning cognition.

==== Gautama Nyaya Sutra 6 ====

Nyaya Sutra of Gautama defines Upamana as below<blockquote>प्रसिद्धसाधर्म्यात्साध्यसाधनं उपमानम् ।। ६ ।। {उपमानलक्षणम्}<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Upamana (Analogy ) is that which accomplishes its purpose through similarity to a known object.  

A person, who has perceived a cow in a town goes to a forest, and perceives a wild cow. He has an apprehension "this animal is similar to a cow" owing to the meeting of his eyes with the animal.. This knowledge of similarity of a cow with a wild cow is acquired by comparison.

The bhashyam on Nyaya sutra 6 is as follows<blockquote>प्रज्ञातेन सामान्यात्प्रज्ञापनीयस्य प्रज्ञापनमुपमानमिति । यथा गौरेवं गवय इति । यदा खल्वयं गवा समानधर्मं प्रतिपद्यते तदा प्रत्यक्षतस्तमर्थं प्रतिपद्यत इति । समाख्यासम्बन्धप्रतिपत्तिः रूपमानार्थ इत्याह । यथा गौरेवं गवय इत्युपमाने प्रयुक्ते गवा समानधर्ममर्थमिन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षादुपलभमानो अस्य गवयशब्दः संज्ञेति संज्ञासंज्ञिसम्बन्धं  प्रतिपद्यतइति । यथा मुद्गस्तथा मुद्गपर्णि यथा माषस्तथा माषपणि इत्युपमाने प्रयुक्ते उपमानात् संज्ञासंज्ञिसम्बन्धं प्रतिपद्यमानस्तामोषधीं भैषज्यायाहरति । एवमन्यो अप्युपमानस्य लोके विषयो बुभुत्सितव्य इति । (Page 69 and 70 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>A person, who has perceived a cow in a town goes to a forest, and perceives a wild cow. He has an apprehension "this animal is similar to a cow" owing to the meeting of his eyes with the animal.. This knowledge of similarity of a cow with a wild cow is acquired by comparison.

==Shabda Pramana==

==Shabda Pramana==

Sutra 7 bhasyam last two lines (which go for conclusion) Page 70 and 71 bhasyam for sutra 8 until Yasyeha ---- iti

Sutra 7 bhasyam last two lines (which go for conclusion) Page 70 and 71 bhasyam for sutra 8 until Yasyeha ---- iti