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Line 58: − − == प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas == − Pramanas though are ten in number, six of them (Shad Pramanas) are accepted by astika schools of darshanas are discussed here. − #प्रत्यक्षम् ॥ Pratyaksha (perception) − #अनुमानम् ॥ Anumana (inference) − #शब्दः ॥ Shabda or aagama (verbal testimony) − #उपमानम् ॥ Upamana (comparison) − #अर्थापत्तिः ॥ Arthaapatti (presumption) − #अभावः ॥ Abhaava (negation or non-apprehension) − Gautama in his Nyayasutras lays down that there are four kinds of Pramanas. Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana (Analogy) and Shabda (Words) are the Pramanas. (Page 36 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ।।३।। {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3) <ref name=":4" /> </blockquote> − − ==प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणम् ॥ Pratyaksha Pramana== − Pratyaksha pramana (Samskrit : प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणम्) is made of two words Prati and Aksha, which literally means "In front of the eyes". Knowledge which is produced by the contact of a sense-organ with an object is pratyaksha. − − Pratyaksha pramana is the primary and fundamental of all the sources of valid knowledge and it is universally recognized so by all schools of philosophy. According to Nyaya , perception is not the only source of our knowledge, but is the basis of the other sources or means of knowledge. − − Perception is a source of direct knowledge and leads one to apprehend the reality. All other means of knowledge are indirect sources of apprehending reality. Example: When the sense-organ, i.e. eye, comes in direct contact with a pot, there arises a perceptual knowledge of pot. − − According to Nyaya Sutra<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षोत्पन्नं ज्ञानं अव्यपदेश्यं अव्यभिचारि व्यवसायात्मकं प्रत्यक्षम् ।।४।।{प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref> </blockquote>According to Vatsyayana Bhasyam of Nyaya sutra (1.1.4) <blockquote>इन्द्रियस्यार्थेन सन्निकर्षाद् उत्पद्यते यत् ज्ञानं, तत् प्रत्यक्षम् ॥ (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.4) (Page 59 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Meaning : Sense perception is that cognition which is − # produced by the contact (सन्निकर्षाद्) of the sense organ (इन्द्रियम्) with the object (अर्थेः). − # अव्यपदेश्यं not expressible by words − # अव्यभिचारि not erroneous, non-deviatedness − # व्यवसायात्मकं doubtless with crystal clear clarity (well-defined) − The constant connection of the means of valid cognition (Pramana) with the object (artha) is called nondeviatedness (अव्यभिचारित्वम्) − − According to Annambhatta's Tarkasangraha<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षजन्यं ज्ञानं प्रत्यक्षम्। <ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Pratyakshanirupanam])</ref></blockquote> − ==अनुमानप्रमाणम् ॥ Anumana Pramana== − The second instrument of valid knowledge is Anumana Pramana. − − According to Nyaya sutras <blockquote>अथ तत्पूर्वकं त्रिविधं अनुमानं पूर्ववत् शेषवत् सामान्यतोदृष्टं च ।।५।। {अनुमानलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Meaning : After perception comes Inference which is led up to by perception; it is of three kinds - Purvavat (पूर्ववत्), Sheshavat (शेषवत्), and Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्). − − The meaning of the above sutra is explained by Vatsyayana bhashya as follows <blockquote>तत्पूर्वकमित्यनेन लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः संबन्धदर्शनं लिङ्गदर्शनं चाभिसंबध्यते । लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः संबध्द्योर्दर्शनेन लिङ्गस्मृतिरभिसंबध्यते । स्मृत्या लिङ्गदर्शनेन चाऽप्रत्यक्षः अर्थः अनुमीयते । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Meaning : The expression तत्पूर्वकम् meaning 'led up to perception' refers to the darshana (perception obtained through the indriyas and manas) of the relation between the Linga (लिङ्ग । mark) and Lingi (लिङ्गि । object indicated by the mark) and also darshana of Linga itself. The darshana of the relation between linga (mark) and lingi (object) also implies Smrti (स्मृतिः । remembrance) of linga. Thus by means of Smrti and darshana of Linga (mark) the Apratyaksha (अप्रत्यक्षः । non-perceptible) object (अर्थः) is inferred (अनुमानम् । anumana). (Page 26 of Reference<ref name=":6" />). Thus anumana depends totally on previous experiences through pratyaksha and this knowledge follows other kinds of knowledge. Example : where there is smoke there is fire. − − Tarkasamgraha defines Anumana as <blockquote>अनुमितिकरणमनुमानम्॥१॥ परामर्शजन्यं ज्ञानमनुमितिः॥२॥ व्याप्तिविशिष्टपक्षधर्मताज्ञानं परामर्शः ।<ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Anumana Nirupana])</ref></blockquote>Anumana is of three kinds with each of them having two definitions with elaborately described examples by Vatsyayana for the Nyaya Sutras given by Gautama. − − === Purvavat (पूर्ववत्) === − <blockquote>पूर्ववदिति, यत्र कारणेन कार्य्यमनुमीयते। यथा मेधोन्नत्या भविष्यति वृष्टिरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Purvavat Anumana is that in which the effect is inferred from the cause; e.g. when we see the clouds rising, we infer that there will be rain. The cause is 'purva' or prior to the effect ; hence that in which the Anumana is based on the cognition of the cause has been called Purvavat. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>अथवा पूर्ववदिति, यत्र यथा पूर्व्वं प्रत्यक्षभूतयोः अन्यतरदर्शनेन अन्यतरस्य अप्रत्यक्षस्य अनुमानम् । यथा धूमेनाग्निरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Purvavat Anumana is that in which out of two things perceived on some former occasion, perception of one of the two things leads to inference of the other (which is not being perceived); e.g. when fire is inferred from smoke. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />) − − === Sheshavat (शेषवत्) === − <blockquote>शेषवत् यत्र कार्य्येण कारणमनुमीयते । पूर्व्वोदकविपरीतमुदकं, नद्याः पूर्णत्वमं, शीध्रत्वञ्च दृष्ट्वा स्रोतसोऽनुमीयते भूता वृष्टिरिति । (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.5) (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Sheshavat Anumana is that in which the cause is inferred from the effect; e.g. when we see that the water of the river is not like what it used to be, and that the stream is fuller and the current swifter, we infer that there has been rain in the catchment areas. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />) <blockquote>शेषवत् नाम परिशेषः, स च प्रसक्तप्रतिषेधेऽन्यत्र अप्रसाङ्गात् शिष्यमाणे सम्प्रत्ययः । यथा सदनित्यमित्येवमादिना द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषेण सामान्यविशेषसमवायेभ्यो विभक्तस्य शब्दस्य तस्मिन् द्रव्यकर्मगुणसंशये न द्रव्यमेकद्रव्यत्वात्, न कर्म शब्दान्तरहेतुत्वात्, यस्तु शिष्यते, सोऽयमिति शब्दस्य गुणत्वप्रतिपत्तिः । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>The word sheshavat means remainder; with regard to an object there are certain possibilities - and some of these possibilities are eliminated; and there being no other possibilities - when the remaining possibility is cognised in relation to the said object, this cognition is Sheshavat. e.g. with regard to Sound, we find that it is an real entity (सत्) and is transient (अनित्यमम्) etc; and as these properties (being an entity and being transient etc) are found to be common to Substances (द्रव्यम्), Qualities (गुणः) and Actions (कर्म) only, their presence in Sound distinguishes it from the remaining categories of the Commoness (सामान्यम्), Specialness (विशेष्यम्) and Samavaya (समवाय । Pervasiveness) (all of which are three entities, but eternal). Now there arises a doubt as to whether Sound is a Substance, a Quality or an Action. This doubt is reasoned (by the process of elimination) in the following manner : − * Sound cannot be a Substance (द्रव्यम्), because it pervades in a single substance (Akasha). No other dravya is pervasive only in one dravya. All Substances are either not inherent in any dravya (e.g. Atman) or inherent in more than one dravya (e.g. a jar). − * Sound is not an Action (कर्म), because it is the originator of another sound, thus it gives rise to something that is of its own kind which is never the case with any action. − * Sound is thus a Quality (गुणः) arrived at by the process of elimination of the other two. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />) − − === Samanyatodrshtam (सामान्यतोदृष्टम्) === − <blockquote>सामान्यतो दृष्टं व्रज्यापूर्वकम् अन्यत्र दृष्टस्य अन्यत्र दर्शनमिति तथा चाऽऽदित्यस्य । तस्मात् अस्ति अप्रत्यक्षा अपि आप्यादित्यस्य व्रज्येति। (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Samanyatodrsta Anumana (is that in which the inference is based on a general observation) e.g. we have observed in all cases that we see a thing in a place different from where we saw it before only when it has moved; from such general observation we infer that the sun must be moving, even though we cannot perceive it. (Page 26 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>सामान्यतो दृष्टं नाम, यत्राप्रत्यक्षे लिङ्गलिङ्गिनोः सम्बन्धे केनचिदर्थेन लिङ्गस्य सामान्यादप्रत्यक्षो लिङ्गी गम्यते । यथेच्छादिभिरात्मा । इच्छादयो गुणाः । गुणाश्च द्रव्यसंस्थानाः । तद्यदेषां स्थानं स आत्मेति । (Page 65 and 66 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Samanyatodrsta Anumana is that in which, the relation between the Linga and Lingi being Apratyaksha (imperceptible), the imperceptible Lingi is inferred from the similarity of the Linga (mark) to something else. e.g. When the Atma is inferred from Desire etc. Desire etc are a Qualities and Qualities always pervade in substances. Similarity of Desire to other qualities which pervade in substances leads to the Anumana that, that Substance in which Desire pervades is the Atma. (Page 27 of Reference <ref name=":6" />) − ==Upamana Pramana== − The third instrument of knowledge is called Upamana Pramana. The knowledge of similarity is generated by Upamana. This knowledge arises by the use of comparison of two things and the presence of some common factors in a thing. However, the word Upamana has been translated variously as comparison, analogy, identification, knowledge by similarity and knowledge by assimilation. Nyaya sutra of Gautama defines Upamana as below<blockquote>प्रसिद्धसाधर्म्यात्साध्यसाधनं उपमानम् ।। ६ ।। {उपमानलक्षणम्}<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Vatsyayana Bhasyam on Nyaya sutra 6 is as follows − − प्रज्ञातेन सामान्यात्प्रज्ञापनीयस्य प्रज्ञापनमुपमानमिति । यथा गौरेवं गवय इति । यदा खल्वयं गवा समानधर्मं प्रतिपद्यते तदा प्रत्यक्षतस्तमर्थं प्रतिपद्यत इति । समाख्यासम्बन्धप्रतिपत्ति रूपमानार्थ इत्याह । यथा गौरेवं गवय इत्युपमाने प्रयुक्ते गवा समानधर्ममर्थमिन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षादुपलभमानो अस्य गवयशब्दः संज्ञेति संज्ञासंज्ञिसम्बन्धं प्रतिपद्यतइति । यथा मुद्गस्तथा मुद्गपर्णो यथा माषस्तथा माषपणीत्युपमाने प्रयुक्ते उपमानात्संज्ञासंज्ञिसम्बन्धं प्रतिपद्यमानस्तामेषधों भैषज्यायाहरति । एवमन्यो अप्युपमानस्य लोके विषयो बुभुत्सितव्य इति । (Page 69 and 70 of Reference <ref name=":5" />) − − It is derived from the words Upa meaning saadrisya or similarity and maana meaning cognition. − − A person, who has perceived a cow in a town goes to a forest, and perceives a wild cow. He has an apprehension "this animal is similar to a cow" owing to the meeting of his eyes with the animal.. This knowledge of similarity of a cow with a wild cow is acquired by comparison. − ==Shabda Pramana== − Sutra 7 bhasyam last two lines (which go for conclusion) Page 70 and 71 bhasyam for sutra 8 until Yasyeha ---- iti − − Shabda literally means verbal knowledge. Shabda pramana is also called as Agama pramana, sastra pramana according to the school of thought. "sabdha vijnanata samyag sannikrsharta anubhavah agamaha" that evidence about objects realized by the power of words and sentences is called Shabhda pramana. This knowledge depends on reliable authority and also on aakaksha, yogyata and aasatti of a sentence. Different sounds such as those arising from musical instruments and bamboos also contribute to the realization of this knowledge. "Agama," literally means "that which has come", contextually it means that evidence which is realized by the process of understanding scriptures from rishis who constitute reliable authority. Agama pramanas are divided in two parts - Apaurusheya and Paurusheya. Vedas, upanishadas, puranas, dharma sastras, and smritis are "apaurusheya,” or of non human origin. The words of rishis and elders constitute "paurusheya pramanas. Basically paurusheya pramanas ultimately do not contradict the Vedas. − − Shabda pramana is designated in various ways by the different schools of Indian system. Thus, it is "shabda", according to Naiyayikas, "Shastra" according to Mimaamsakas, "Aptavachana" according to Samkhyaists and "Aagama" to Vedantins. − ==Arthaapatti Pramana== − Arthapatti is the presumption of something for the explanation of a known fact. The word arthaapatti gies under various translations as presumption, postulation, supposition, implication, and assumption. When a given or perceived fact cannot be explained without some other fact we have to presuppose or postulate the existence of this other fact even though we do not perceive it. Example : when a particular person named Chaitra, known to be alive, is not found in his house, it is assumed that he must be somewhere outside. What is presumed is said to be a distinct source of knowledge. − ==Anupalabdhi Pramana== − Knowledge by which we immediately cognize the non-existence of an object, e.g. absence of rainfall indicates that the connection of cloud and the wind has not happened.
→प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas: moved this content to Shad Pramanas article
=== प्रमाता ॥ Pramata ===
=== प्रमाता ॥ Pramata ===
== References ==
== References ==