8,246
edits
Changes
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
Line 1:
Line 1: − + − + Line 33:
Line 33: − + − + − − Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu traditions, and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads.<sup>[55]</sup> These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology<sup>[24]</sup> to renunciation<sup>[25]</sup> to sectarian theories.<sup>[55]</sup> They were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era (~1600 CE).<sup>[55][25]</sup> While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre-3rd century CE,<sup>[28][29]</sup> many of these new texts under the title of "Upanishads" originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE,<sup>[55]</sup> they are not Vedic texts, and some do not deal with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads.<sup>[58]</sup> − − The main Shakta Upanishads, for example, mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic ''Shakta Upaniṣads'' vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their "location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas. Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not accepted in Hinduism.<sup>[59]</sup> Line 167:
Line 163: − According to the beliefs, principles and nature of a particular sampradaya, Upanishads have been composed in later days. Line 180:
Line 175: − − '''Association with Vedas''' − − All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda (there are two primary versions or ''Samhitas'' of the Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda, Krishna Yajurveda), and Atharvaveda.<sup>[60]</sup> During the modern era, the ancient Upanishads that were embedded texts in the Vedas, were detached from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic text, compiled into separate texts and these were then gathered into anthologies of Upanishads.<sup>[55]</sup> These lists associated each Upanishad with one of the four Vedas, many such lists exist, and these lists are inconsistent across India in terms of which Upanishads are included and how the newer Upanishads are assigned to the ancient Vedas. In south India, the collected list based on Muktika Upanishad,<sup>[note 5]</sup> and published in Telugu language, became the most common by the 19th-century and this is a list of 108 Upanishads.<sup>[55][26]</sup> In north India, a list of 52 Upanishads has been most common.<sup>[55]</sup> − − The Muktikā Upanishad's list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 13 as ''mukhya'',<sup>[27][note 6]</sup> 21 as Sāmānya Vedānta, 20 as Sannyāsa,<sup>[28]</sup> 14 as Vaishnava, 12 as Shaiva, 8 as Shakta, and 20 as Yoga.<sup>[29]</sup> The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktikā are shown in the table below.<sup>[60]</sup> The mukhya Upanishads are the most important and highlighted. − {| class="MsoNormalTable" − | colspan="9" |Veda-Upanishad association − |- − |'''Veda''' − |'''Number<sup>[60]</sup>''' − |'''Mukhya<sup>[27]</sup>''' − |'''Sāmānya''' − |'''Sannyāsa<sup>[28]</sup>''' − |'''Śākta<sup>[30]</sup>''' − |'''Vaiṣṇava<sup>[31]</sup>''' − |'''Śaiva<sup>[32]</sup>''' − |'''Yoga<sup>[29]</sup>''' − |- − |Ṛigveda − |10 − |Aitareya, Kauśītāki − |Ātmabodha, Mudgala − |Nirvāṇa − |Tripura, Saubhāgya-lakshmi, Bahvṛca − |<nowiki>-</nowiki> − |Akṣamālika − |Nādabindu − |- − |Samaveda − |16 − |Chāndogya, Kena − |Vajrasūchi, Maha, Sāvitrī − |Āruṇi, Maitreya, Brhat-Sannyāsa, Kuṇḍika (Laghu-Sannyāsa) − |<nowiki>-</nowiki> − |Vāsudeva, Avyakta − |Rudrākṣa, Jābāli − |Yogachūḍāmaṇi, Darśana − |- − |Krishna Yajurveda − |32 − |Taittiriya, Katha, Śvetāśvatara, Maitrāyaṇi<sup>[note 7]</sup> − |Sarvasāra, Śukarahasya, Skanda, Garbha, Śārīraka, Ekākṣara, Akṣi − |Brahma, (Laghu, Brhad) Avadhūta, Kaṭhasruti − |Sarasvatī-rahasya − |Nārāyaṇa, Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa − |Kaivalya, Kālāgnirudra, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Rudrahṛdaya, Pañcabrahma − |Amṛtabindu, Tejobindu, Amṛtanāda, Kṣurika, Dhyānabindu, Brahmavidyā, Yogatattva, Yogaśikhā, Yogakuṇḍalini, Varāha − |- − |Shukla Yajurveda − |19 − |Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Īśa − |Subala, Mantrika, Niralamba, Paingala, Adhyatma, Muktika − |Jābāla, Paramahaṃsa, Bhikṣuka, Turīyātītavadhuta, Yājñavalkya, Śāṭyāyaniya − |<nowiki>-</nowiki> − |Tārasāra − |<nowiki>-</nowiki> − |Advayatāraka, Haṃsa, Triśikhi, Maṇḍalabrāhmaṇa − |- − |Atharvaveda − |31 − |Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Praśna − |Ātmā, Sūrya, Prāṇāgnihotra<sup>[33]</sup> − |Āśrama, Nārada-parivrājaka, Paramahaṃsa parivrājaka, Parabrahma − |Sītā, Devī, Tripurātapini, Bhāvana − |Nṛsiṃhatāpanī, Mahānārāyaṇa (Tripād vibhuti), Rāmarahasya, Rāmatāpaṇi, Gopālatāpani, Kṛṣṇa, Hayagrīva, Dattātreya, Gāruḍa − |Atharvasiras,<sup>[34]</sup> Atharvaśikha, Bṛhajjābāla, Śarabha, Bhasma, Gaṇapati − |Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya − |- − |Total Upanishads − |108 − |13<sup>[note 6]</sup> − |21 − |19 − |8 − |14 − |13 − |20 − |}'''Philosophy''' − − ''Main article: Vedanta'' Line 334:
Line 248: − − '''References''' − − 43. ↑ ''Ayyangar, TRS (1953). Saiva Upanisads. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint'' 2007). pp. 194–196. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0895819819</nowiki>. − − 47. ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 56. − − 48. ↑ Ranade 1926, p. 61. − − 49. ↑ Joshi 1994, pp. 90–92. − − 51. ↑ Lal 1992, p. 4090. − − 53. ↑ Singh 2002, pp. 3–4. − − 67. 1 2 The Yoga Upanishads TR Srinivasa Ayyangar (Translator), SS Sastri (Editor), Adyar Library − − 68. ↑ AM Sastri, The Śākta Upaniṣads, with the commentary of Śrī Upaniṣad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 7475481 − − 69. ↑ AM Sastri, The Vaishnava-upanishads: with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-brahma-yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 83901261 − − 70. ↑ AM Sastri, The Śaiva-Upanishads with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 863321204 − − 83. ↑ PV Kane, Samanya Dharma, History of Dharmasastra, Vol. 2, Part 1, page 5 − − 86. 1 2 3 4 Mahadevan 1956, p. 57. − − 97. ↑ RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42 − − 99. 1 2 3 Jayatilleke 1963, p. 32. − − 100. ↑ Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 36-39. − − 101. ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 59. − − 104. ↑ PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, <nowiki>ISBN 978-1406732627</nowiki>, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII − − 110. ↑ PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0887061394</nowiki>, pages 35-36 − − 120. ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 62. − − 121. ↑ Paul Deussen, ''The Philosophy of the Upanishads'', p. 161, at Google Books, pages 161, 240-254 − − 122. ↑ Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0791436844</nowiki>, page 376 − − 123. ↑ H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0802840974</nowiki>, page 57 − − 124. ↑ Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0226618555</nowiki>, page 119 − − 125. ↑ Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics, Routledge, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0415245227</nowiki>, pages 47-48 − − 126. ↑ Teun Goudriaan (2008), Maya: Divine And Human, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8120823891</nowiki>, pages 1-17 − − 127. ↑ KN Aiyar (Translator, 1914), Sarvasara Upanishad, in Thirty Minor Upanishads, page 17, OCLC 6347863 − − 128. ↑ Adi Shankara, ''Commentary'' on Taittiriya Upanishad'' at Google Books, SS Sastri (Translator), Harvard University'' Archives, pages 191-198 − − 129. ↑ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 272. − − 130. ↑ Raju 1992, p. 176-177. − − 131. 1 2 Raju 1992, p. 177. − − 132. ↑ Ranade 1926, pp. 179–182. − − 133. ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 63. − − 134. 1 2 Encyclopædia Britannica. − − 145. ↑ Panikkar 2001, p. 669. − − 146. ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 725–727. − − 147. ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 747–750. − − 148. ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 697–701. − − 149. 1 2 Olivelle 1998. − − 150. ↑ Raghavendrachar 1956, p. 322. − − 151. 1 2 Chari 1956, p. 305. − − 152. 1 2 Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy, Vol. 20, No. 2, pages 215-224, doi:10.1080/09552367.2010.484955 − − 153. ↑ Klostermaier 2007, pp. 361–363. − − 154. 1 2 Chousalkar, pp. 130-134. − − 155. 1 2 Wadia 1956, p. 64-65. − − 156. ↑ Collins 2000, pp. 197–198. − − 157. ↑ Urwick 1920. − − 158. ↑ Keith 2007, pp. 602-603. − − 159. 1 2 WD Strappini, ''The Upanishads'', p. 258, at Google Books, The Month and Catholic Review, Vol. 23, Issue 42 − − 160. ↑ RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42; Chousalkar, Ashok (1986), Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma, pages 130-134 − − 172. ↑ Sadhale 1987. − − 173. ↑ ''Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen'' Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press − − 174. ↑ Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997. − − 175. ↑ ''Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli (1953), The Principal Upanishads, New Delhi:'' HarperCollins Publishers (1994 Reprint), <nowiki>ISBN 81-7223-124-5</nowiki> − − 176. ↑ Olivelle 1992. − − 177. ↑ Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 395. − − 178. ↑ Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 397. − − 179. 1 2 Singh 1999, p. 456-461. − − 180. ↑ Versluis 1993, pp. 69, 76, 95. 106–110. − − 181. ↑ Eliot 1963. − − 182. ↑ Schrödinger 1992, p. 129. − − 183. ↑ Easwaran 2007, p. 9. − − 184. ↑ Juan Mascaró, The Upanishads, Penguin Classics, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0140441635</nowiki>, page 7, 146, cover − − 185. 1 2 Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads University of Kiel, T&T Clark, pages 150-179 − − '''Sources''' − *''Brodd, Jefferey (2003), World Religions, Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5</nowiki>'' − *''Brooks, Douglas Renfrew (1990), The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Shakta Tantrism, The University of Chicago Press'' − *''Brown, Rev. George William (1922), Missionary review of the world, Volume 45, Funk & Wagnalls'' − *''Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, <nowiki>ISBN 0-8248-0298-5</nowiki>'' − *''Deussen, Paul; Bedekar, V.M. (tr.); Palsule (tr.), G.B. (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7</nowiki>.'' − *''Deussen, P.; Geden, A. (2010), The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Cosimo, <nowiki>ISBN 978-1-61640-239-6</nowiki>'' − *''Chari, P. N. Srinivasa (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western'' − *''Chousalkar, Ashok (1986), Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma, Mittal Publications'' − *''Chowdhry, Tarapada (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen and Unwin Limited, p. 46'' − *''Collins, Randall (2000), The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change, Harvard University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 0-674-00187-7</nowiki>'' − *''Coningham (2013), "The earliest Buddhist shrine: excavating the birthplace of the Buddha, Lumbini (Nepal)", Antiquity, '''87''' (338): 1104–1123'' − *''Cornille, Catherine (1992), The Guru in Indian Catholicism: Ambiguity Or Opportunity of Inculturation, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8028-0566-9</nowiki>'' − *''Cousins, L. S. (1996), The dating of the historical Buddha: a review article, '''3''' (6(1)), Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp. 57–63'' − *''Deussen, Paul (1908), The philosophy of the Upanishads, Alfred Shenington Geden, T. & T. Clark, <nowiki>ISBN 0-7661-5470-X</nowiki>'' − *''A.G.Krishna Warrier (translator), Muktika Upanishad, The Theosophical Publishing House, Chennai, retrieved 10 August 2010'' − *''Easwaran, Eknath (2007), The Upanishads, Nilgiri Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-1-58638-021-2</nowiki>'' − *''Eliot, T. S. (1963), Collected Poems, 1909-1962, New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, <nowiki>ISBN 0-15-118978-1</nowiki>'' − *''Encyclopædia Britannica, Advaita, retrieved 10 August 2010'' − *''Farquhar, John Nicol (1920), An outline of the religious literature of India, H. Milford, Oxford university press, <nowiki>ISBN 81-208-2086-X</nowiki>'' − *''Fields, Gregory P (2001), Religious Therapeutics: Body and Health in Yoga, Āyurveda, and Tantra, SUNY Press, <nowiki>ISBN 0-7914-4916-5</nowiki>'' − *''Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0521438780</nowiki>'' − *''Glucklich, Ariel (2008), The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective, Oxford University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 0-19-531405-0</nowiki>'' − *''Heehs, Peter (2002), Indian religions: a historical reader of spiritual expression and experience, NYU Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8147-3650-0</nowiki>'' − *''Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah, Albany: SUNY Press, <nowiki>ISBN 0-7914-1639-9</nowiki>'' − *''Jayatilleke, K.N. (1963), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge (PDF) (1st ed.), London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.'' − *''Joshi, Kireet (1994), The Veda and Indian culture: an introductory essay, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-0889-8</nowiki>'' − *''Kalupahana (1975), Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, The University Press of Hawaii, <nowiki>ISBN 0-8248-0298-5</nowiki>'' − *''Coningham (2013), "The earliest Buddhist shrine: excavating the birthplace of the Buddha, Lumbini (Nepal)", Antiquity, '''87''' (338): 1104–1123'' − *''Keith, Arthur Berriedale (2007). The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-0644-3</nowiki>.'' − *''King, Richard (1999), Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 0-87840-756-1</nowiki>'' − *''King, Richard; Ācārya, Gauḍapāda (1995), Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, SUNY Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-2513-8</nowiki>'' − *''Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007), A survey of Hinduism, SUNY Press, <nowiki>ISBN 0-585-04507-0</nowiki>'' − *''Lanman, Charles R (1897), The Outlook, Volume 56, Outlook Co.'' − *''Lal, Mohan (1992), Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: sasay to zorgot, Sahitya Akademi, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-260-1221-3</nowiki>'' − *''Müller, Friedrich Max (1900), The Upanishads Sacred books of the East The Upanishads, Friedrich Max Müller, Oxford University Press'' − *''Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (2004), A practical Sanskrit dictionary with transliteration, accentuation, and etymological analysis throughout, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-2000-5</nowiki>'' − *''Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd'' − *''Mohammada, Malika (2007), The foundations of the composite culture in India, Aakar Books, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-89833-18-3</nowiki>'' − *''Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, <nowiki>ISBN 0-8426-0286-0</nowiki>, retrieved 10 August 2010'' − *''Mueller, Friedrich Max (1859), A history of ancient Sanskrit literature so far as it illustrates the primitive religion of the Brahmans, Williams & Norgate'' − *''Muller, F. Max (1899), The science of language founded on lectures delivered at the royal institution in 1861 AND 1863, <nowiki>ISBN 0-404-11441-5</nowiki>'' − *''Nakamura, Hajime (2004), A history of early Vedānta philosophy, Volume 2, Trevor Leggett, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.'' − *''Narain, A. K (2003), Narain, A. K, ed., The Date of the Historical Śākyamuni Buddha', B. R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, <nowiki>ISBN 81-7646-353-1</nowiki>'' − *''Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0195070453</nowiki>.'' − *''Olivelle, Patrick (1998), Upaniṣads, Oxford University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0192835765</nowiki>'' − *''Panikkar, Raimundo (2001), The Vedic experience: Mantramañjarī : an anthology of the Vedas for modern man and contemporary celebration, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-1280-2</nowiki>'' − *''Parmeshwaranand, Swami (2000), Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upanisads, Sarup & Sons, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-7625-148-8</nowiki>'' − *''Phillips, Stephen H. (1995), Classical Indian metaphysics: refutations of realism and the emergence of "new logic", Open Court Publishing, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-1489-9</nowiki>, retrieved 2010-10-24'' − *''Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press'' − *''Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd'' − *''Raghavendrachar, Vidvan H. N (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western'' − *''Ranade, R. D. (1926), A constructive survey of Upanishadic philosophy, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan'' − *''Rinehart, Robin (2004), Robin Rinehart, ed., Contemporary Hinduism: ritual, culture, and practice, ABC-CLIO, <nowiki>ISBN 978-1-57607-905-8</nowiki>'' − *''Sadhale, S. Gajanan Shambhu (1987), Sri Garibdass Oriental Series (44), Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications'' − *''Schayer, Stanislaw (1925), Die Bedeutung des Wortes Upanisad, '''3''', Rocznik Orientalistyczny'' − *''Schopenhauer, Arthur; Payne, E. F.J (2000), E. F. J. Payne, ed., Parerga and paralipomena: short philosophical essays, Volume 2 of Parerga and Paralipomena, E. F. J. Payne, Oxford University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-19-924221-4</nowiki>'' − *''Schrödinger, Erwin (1992), What is life?, Cambridge University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-521-42708-1</nowiki>'' − *''Schrader, Friedrich Otto; Adyar Library (1908), A descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts in the Adyar Library, Oriental Pub. Co'' − *''Sen, Sris Chandra (1937), "Vedic literature and Upanishads", The Mystic Philosophy of the Upanishads, General Printers & Publishers'' − *''Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000), A history of the Dvaita school of Vedānta and its literature: from the earliest beginnings to our own times, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-1575-9</nowiki>'' − *''Sharma, Shubhra (1985), Life in the Upanishads, Abhinav Publications, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-7017-202-4</nowiki>'' − *''Singh, N.K (2002), Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-7488-168-7</nowiki>'' − *''Singh, Nagendra Kr (2000), Ambedkar on religion, Anmol Publications, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-261-0503-8</nowiki>'' − *''Slater, Thomas Ebenezer (1897), Studies in the Upanishads ATLA monograph preservation program, Christian Literature Society for India'' − *''Smith, Huston (1995), The Illustrated World’s Religions: A Guide to Our Wisdom Traditions, New York: Labyrinth Publishing, <nowiki>ISBN 0-06-067453-9</nowiki>'' − *''Sri Aurbindo Kapali Sastr Institute of Vedic Culture, SAKSIVC: Vedic Literature: Upanishads: 108 Upanishads:, www.vedah.com, retrieved 10 August 2010'' − *''Tripathy, Preeti (2010), Indian religions: tradition, history and culture, Axis Publications, <nowiki>ISBN 978-93-80376-17-2</nowiki>'' − *''Urwick, Edward Johns (1920), The message of Plato: a re-interpretati'' − *''Raju, P. T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited'' − − *
Editing added content and references
Upanishads (Samskrit : उपनिषद्) are the concluding segments, available as a part of Aranyakas.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref name=":4">Upadhyaya, Baldev. (1958) ''[https://archive.org/stream/VaidikSahityaBaldevUpadhyaya1958/Vaidik%20Sahitya%20Baldev%20Upadhyaya%201958#page/n263/mode/2up Vaidik Sahitya]''.</ref> Since they expound the various spiritual and dharmika siddhantas and tattvas that leads a sadhaka to the highest purpose of Moksha and because they are present at the end of the Vedas, they are also referred to as the ''Vedanta''. They do not forbid the rituals or rites prescribed in the Karmakanda but expound that only through Jnana one can attain moksha.<ref name=":42222" />
Upanishads (Samskrit : उपनिषद्) are the concluding segments, available as a part of Aranyakas.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref name=":4">Upadhyaya, Baldev. (1958) ''[https://archive.org/stream/VaidikSahityaBaldevUpadhyaya1958/Vaidik%20Sahitya%20Baldev%20Upadhyaya%201958#page/n263/mode/2up Vaidik Sahitya]''.</ref> Since they expound the various spiritual and dharmika siddhantas and tattvas that leads a sadhaka to the highest purpose of Moksha and because they are present at the end of the Vedas, they are also referred to as the ''Vedanta''. They do not forbid the rituals or rites prescribed in the Karmakanda but expound that only through Jnana one can attain moksha.<ref name=":42222" /><blockquote>वेदान्तो नामोपनिषत्प्रमाणं तदनुसारीणि। शारीरकसूत्राणि च । <ref>Prof. K. Sundararama Aiyar (1911) ''Vedantasara of Sadananda with Balabodhini Commentary of Apadeva.'' Srirangam : Sri Vani Vilas Press</ref></blockquote>Sadananda Yogindra, in his Vedantasara says ''that "Vedanta has the Upanishads for its evidence and includes the Sharira Sutras and other works which corroborate it"''<ref>Sastri, M. N. Dutt (1909) ''Vedanta-sara. A Prose English translation and Explanatory notes and Comments.'' Calcutta : Elysium Press.</ref>
The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas.
The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' includes the class of writings under the heading Prasthana Trayi, namely The Upanishads, Brahmasutras and Bhagavadgita. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas.
==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==
==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 30-31</ref><ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part19/chap6.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref>The Upanishads along with the Bhagavadgita and Brahmasutras constitute the Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी) and both the Gita and Brahmasutras are based again on the Upanishads. They are also the foundational sources for all Darshana shastras and including the Jain and Buddhist philosophies.
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 30-31</ref><ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part19/chap6.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref>The Upanishads along with the Bhagavadgita and Brahmasutras constitute the Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी) and both the Gita and Brahmasutras are based again on the Upanishads. They are also the foundational sources for all Darshana shastras and including the Jain and Buddhist philosophies.
In the mukhya upanishads, there are many instances of रहस्यम् meaning secret or hidden knowledge especially in Atharvaveda upanishads. Kaushitaki Upanishad for example, contains detailed siddhantas of मनोज्ञानम् and तत्वज्ञानम् (Psychology and metaphysics). Apart from them they also contain मृतकज्ञानम् (siddhantas around death, travel of Atman etc), बालमृत्यु निवारणम् (preventing untimely childhood deaths) शत्रुविनाशार्थ रहस्यम् (secrets about the destruction of enemies) etc. Chandogya Upanishads gives the secrets about the origin of worlds, Jiva, Jagat, Om and their hidden meanings.<ref name=":1" />
In the mukhya upanishads, there are many instances of रहस्यम् meaning secret or hidden knowledge especially in Atharvaveda upanishads. Kaushitaki Upanishad for example, contains detailed siddhantas of मनोज्ञानम् and तत्वज्ञानम् (Psychology and metaphysics). Apart from them they also contain मृतकज्ञानम् (siddhantas around death, travel of Atman etc), बालमृत्यु निवारणम् (preventing untimely childhood deaths) शत्रुविनाशार्थ रहस्यम् (secrets about the destruction of enemies) etc. Chandogya Upanishads gives the secrets about the origin of worlds, Jiva, Jagat, Om and their hidden meanings.<ref name=":1" />
==Classification of Upanishads==
==Classification of Upanishads==
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest (प्राचीनम्), most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''mukhya'') Upanishads. The rest of them aid in explaining bhakti or jnana concepts and many are without bhashyas. Some scholars accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13 to be the principal Upanishads and some others accept 108 Upanishads.<ref name=":22">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 1 Vaidika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest (प्राचीनम्), most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''mukhya'') Upanishads. The rest of them aid in explaining bhakti or jnana concepts and many are without bhashyas. Some scholars accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13 to be the principal Upanishads and some others accept 108 Upanishads given by Muktikopanishad.<ref name=":22">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 1 Vaidika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
There is no fixed list of the ''Upanishads'' as newer ones, beyond the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed.<sup>[52]</sup> In 1908, for example, four previously unknown Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts, and these were named ''Bashkala'', ''Chhagaleya'', ''Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', by Friedrich Schrader,<sup>[53]</sup> who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.<sup>[54]</sup> The text of three, the ''Chhagaleya, Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', were incomplete and inconsistent, likely poorly maintained or corrupted.<sup>[54]</sup>
There is no fixed list of the ''Upanishads'' as newer ones, beyond the Muktika Upanishad list of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed. A collection of Upanishads, namely Upanishad Samgrahah by Pt. J. K. Shastri contains 188 upanishads. <ref>Borthakur, Madhusnita. (2016) Ph. D Thesis ''Title : The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad : A Study'' at Gauhati University</ref>Pracheena Upanishads have long been revered in Sanatana Dharma traditions, and many sampradayas have interpreted the concepts of Upanishads to evolve their sampradaya. These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology to renunciation.
===Basis for Classification===
===Basis for Classification===
Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads based on
Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads based on
#Shaiva siddhanta
#Shaiva siddhanta
#Shakta siddhanta
#Shakta siddhanta
===Special Points===
===Special Points===
Although all Upanishads proclaim that the goal of human life, embroiled in the flow of samsara, is to attain Jnana that leads to Moksha, the ultimate paramapurushartha, each of the upanishads have their own special features about their siddhantas as follows <ref name=":22" />
Although all Upanishads proclaim that the goal of human life, embroiled in the flow of samsara, is to attain Jnana that leads to Moksha, the ultimate paramapurushartha, each of the upanishads have their own special features about their siddhantas as follows <ref name=":22" />
#Mandukya upanishad proclaims Atman to be Brahman
#Mandukya upanishad proclaims Atman to be Brahman
#Aitareya upanishad establishes the characteristics of Brahma
#Aitareya upanishad establishes the characteristics of Brahma
The Upanishadic age was characterized by a pluralism of worldviews. While some Upanishads have been deemed 'monistic', others, including the Katha Upanishad, are dualistic.<sup>[74]</sup> The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the foundation of its Vedanta school.<sup>[75]</sup> They contain a plurality of ideas.<sup>[76][note 8]</sup>
The Upanishadic age was characterized by a pluralism of worldviews. While some Upanishads have been deemed 'monistic', others, including the Katha Upanishad, are dualistic.<sup>[74]</sup> The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the foundation of its Vedanta school.<sup>[75]</sup> They contain a plurality of ideas.<sup>[76][note 8]</sup>
The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.<sup>[153]</sup> Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.<sup>[151]</sup> Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.<sup>[153]</sup> Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.<sup>[151]</sup> Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
{| class="MsoNormalTable"
{| class="MsoNormalTable"
|
|