8,246
edits
Changes
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
Line 33:
Line 33: − + + + + + + + Line 42:
Line 48: − + Line 174:
Line 180: − ==='''Geography'''=== − The general area of the composition of the early Upanishads was northern India, the region bounded on the west by the upper Indus valley, on the east by lower Ganges region, on the north by the Himalayan foothills, and on the south by the Vindhya mountain range. There is confidence about the early Upanishads being the product of the geographical center of ancient Brahmanism, comprising the regions of Kuru-Panchala and Kosala-Videha together with the areas immediately to the south and west of these.<sup>[30]</sup> This region covers modern Bihar, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan and northern Madhya Pradesh.<sup>[6]</sup> − − While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact locations of the individual Upanishads, the results are tentative. Witzel identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area of Videha, whose king, Janaka, features prominently in the Upanishad.<sup>[31]</sup> − − The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more Western than an Eastern location in Indian subcontinent, possibly somewhere in the western region of the Kuru-Panchala country.<sup>[32]</sup> Compared to the Principal Upanishads, the new Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā belong to an entirely different region, probably southern India, and are considerably relatively recent.<sup>[33]</sup> In fourth chapter of the Kaushitaki Upanishad, a location named Kashi (modern Varanasi) is mentioned.<sup>[6]</sup> − − Each of the principal ''Upanishads'' can be associated with one of the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas (''shakhas'').<sup>[49]</sup> Many Shakhas are said to have existed, of which only a few remain. The new ''Upanishads'' often have little relation to the Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta philosopher: their language differs from that of the classic ''Upanishads'', being less subtle and more formalized. As a result, they are not difficult to comprehend for the modern reader.<sup>[50]</sup> − − '''New Upanishads''' − − There is no fixed list of the ''Upanishads'' as newer ones, beyond the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed.<sup>[52]</sup> In 1908, for example, four previously unknown Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts, and these were named ''Bashkala'', ''Chhagaleya'', ''Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', by Friedrich Schrader,<sup>[53]</sup> who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.<sup>[54]</sup> The text of three, the ''Chhagaleya, Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', were incomplete and inconsistent, likely poorly maintained or corrupted.<sup>[54]</sup> − − Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu traditions, and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads.<sup>[55]</sup> These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology<sup>[24]</sup> to renunciation<sup>[25]</sup> to sectarian theories.<sup>[55]</sup> They were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era (~1600 CE).<sup>[55][25]</sup> While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre-3rd century CE,<sup>[28][29]</sup> many of these new texts under the title of "Upanishads" originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE,<sup>[55]</sup> they are not Vedic texts, and some do not deal with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads.<sup>[58]</sup> − − The main Shakta Upanishads, for example, mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic ''Shakta Upaniṣads'' vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their "location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas. Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not accepted in Hinduism.<sup>[59]</sup>
no edit summary
In the mukhya upanishads, there are many instances of रहस्यम् meaning secret or hidden knowledge especially in Atharvaveda upanishads. Kaushitaki Upanishad for example, contains detailed siddhantas of मनोज्ञानम् and तत्वज्ञानम् (Psychology and metaphysics). Apart from them they also contain मृतकज्ञानम् (siddhantas around death, travel of Atman etc), बालमृत्यु निवारणम् (preventing untimely childhood deaths) शत्रुविनाशार्थ रहस्यम् (secrets about the destruction of enemies) etc. Chandogya Upanishads gives the secrets about the origin of worlds, Jiva, Jagat, Om and their hidden meanings.<ref name=":1" />
In the mukhya upanishads, there are many instances of रहस्यम् meaning secret or hidden knowledge especially in Atharvaveda upanishads. Kaushitaki Upanishad for example, contains detailed siddhantas of मनोज्ञानम् and तत्वज्ञानम् (Psychology and metaphysics). Apart from them they also contain मृतकज्ञानम् (siddhantas around death, travel of Atman etc), बालमृत्यु निवारणम् (preventing untimely childhood deaths) शत्रुविनाशार्थ रहस्यम् (secrets about the destruction of enemies) etc. Chandogya Upanishads gives the secrets about the origin of worlds, Jiva, Jagat, Om and their hidden meanings.<ref name=":1" />
==Classification of Upanishads==
==Classification of Upanishads==
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''mukhya'') Upanishads. The rest of them aid in explaining bhakti or jnana concepts and many are without bhashyas. Some scholars accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13 to be the principal Upanishads and some others accept 108 Upanishads.<ref name=":22">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 1 Vaidika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest (प्राचीनम्), most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''mukhya'') Upanishads. The rest of them aid in explaining bhakti or jnana concepts and many are without bhashyas. Some scholars accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13 to be the principal Upanishads and some others accept 108 Upanishads.<ref name=":22">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 1 Vaidika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
There is no fixed list of the ''Upanishads'' as newer ones, beyond the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed.<sup>[52]</sup> In 1908, for example, four previously unknown Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts, and these were named ''Bashkala'', ''Chhagaleya'', ''Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', by Friedrich Schrader,<sup>[53]</sup> who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.<sup>[54]</sup> The text of three, the ''Chhagaleya, Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', were incomplete and inconsistent, likely poorly maintained or corrupted.<sup>[54]</sup>
Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu traditions, and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads.<sup>[55]</sup> These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology<sup>[24]</sup> to renunciation<sup>[25]</sup> to sectarian theories.<sup>[55]</sup> They were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era (~1600 CE).<sup>[55][25]</sup> While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre-3rd century CE,<sup>[28][29]</sup> many of these new texts under the title of "Upanishads" originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE,<sup>[55]</sup> they are not Vedic texts, and some do not deal with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads.<sup>[58]</sup>
The main Shakta Upanishads, for example, mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic ''Shakta Upaniṣads'' vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their "location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas. Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not accepted in Hinduism.<sup>[59]</sup>
===Basis for Classification===
===Basis for Classification===
Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads based on
Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads based on
#the ancientness and modernness of the Upanishads having prose or metrical compositions (mostly given by Western Indologists like Dr. Daison)<ref name=":42222" />
#the ancientness and modernness of the Upanishads having prose or metrical compositions (mostly given by Western Indologists like Dr. Daison)<ref name=":42222" />
===दशोपनिषदः ॥ Dasopanishads===
===दशोपनिषदः ॥ Dasopanishads===
Muktikopanishad lists the following ten as principal Upanishads which have received attention from Shri Adi Shankaracharya in form of his bhasyas.<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरः । एेतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं तथा ॥ ''īśa-kēna-kaṭha-praśna-muṇḍa-māṇḍūkya-tittiraḥ । ēētarēyaṁ ca chāndōgyaṁ br̥hadāraṇyakaṁ tathā ॥''</blockquote>The 10 Mukhya Upanishad on which Adi Shankaracharya commented are:
Muktikopanishad lists the following ten as principal Upanishads which have received attention from Shri Adi Shankaracharya in form of his bhasyas and are considered ancient (प्राचीनम्).<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरः । एेतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं तथा ॥ ''īśa-kēna-kaṭha-praśna-muṇḍa-māṇḍūkya-tittiraḥ । ēētarēyaṁ ca chāndōgyaṁ br̥hadāraṇyakaṁ tathā ॥''</blockquote>The 10 Mukhya Upanishad on which Adi Shankaracharya commented are:
#ईशावाश्योपनिषद् ॥ Ishavasya Upanishad (Shukla Yajur Veda)
#ईशावाश्योपनिषद् ॥ Ishavasya Upanishad (Shukla Yajur Veda)
#केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kena Upanishad (Sama Veda)
#केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kena Upanishad (Sama Veda)
#Mandukya upanishad proclaims Atman to be Brahman
#Mandukya upanishad proclaims Atman to be Brahman
#Aitareya upanishad establishes the characteristics of Brahma
#Aitareya upanishad establishes the characteristics of Brahma
'''Association with Vedas'''
'''Association with Vedas'''