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Upanishads (Samskrit : उपनिषद्) are the concluding segments, available as a part of Aranyakas.<ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":4">Upadhyaya, Baldev. (1958) ''[https://archive.org/stream/VaidikSahityaBaldevUpadhyaya1958/Vaidik%20Sahitya%20Baldev%20Upadhyaya%201958#page/n263/mode/2up Vaidik Sahitya]''.</ref> Since they expound the various spiritual and dharmika siddhantas and tattvas that leads a sadhaka to the highest purpose of Moksha and because they are present at the end of the Vedas, they are also referred to as the ''Vedanta''. They do not forbid the rituals or rites prescribed in the Karmakanda but expound that only through Jnana one can attain moksha.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref>  
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Upanishads (Samskrit : उपनिषद्) are the concluding segments, available as a part of Aranyakas.<ref name=":42222">Gopal Reddy, Mudiganti and Sujata Reddy, Mudiganti (1997) ''[https://archive.org/stream/SAMSKRUTAKAVIJEEVITAMULUByMALLADISURYANARAYANASASTRIGARU/SAMSKRUTA%20SAHITYA%20CHARITRA%20BY%20MUDUGANTI%20GOPALA%20REDDI%26SUJATA%20REDDI%20#page/n33/mode/2up Sanskrita Saahitya Charitra] (Vaidika Vangmayam - Loukika Vangamayam, A critical approach)'' Hyderabad : P. S. Telugu University</ref><ref name=":4">Upadhyaya, Baldev. (1958) ''[https://archive.org/stream/VaidikSahityaBaldevUpadhyaya1958/Vaidik%20Sahitya%20Baldev%20Upadhyaya%201958#page/n263/mode/2up Vaidik Sahitya]''.</ref> Since they expound the various spiritual and dharmika siddhantas and tattvas that leads a sadhaka to the highest purpose of Moksha and because they are present at the end of the Vedas, they are also referred to as the ''Vedanta''. They do not forbid the rituals or rites prescribed in the Karmakanda but expound that only through Jnana one can attain moksha.<ref name=":42222" />
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The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas.
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The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas.
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== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
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==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==
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The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 30-31</ref><ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part19/chap6.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref>The Upanishads along with the Bhagavadgita and Brahmasutras constitute the Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी) and both the Gita and Brahmasutras are based again on the Upanishads. They are also the foundational sources for all Darshana shastras and including the Jain and Buddhist philosophies.  
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The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 30-31</ref><ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part19/chap6.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref>The Upanishads along with the Bhagavadgita and Brahmasutras constitute the Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी) and both the Gita and Brahmasutras are based again on the Upanishads. They are also the foundational sources for all Darshana shastras and including the Jain and Buddhist philosophies.
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According to Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, these are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.<ref name=":2222">Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad, Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, Published by Kautilya Institute of National Studies, Mysore, Page 75 (Glossary)</ref>
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According to Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, these are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.<ref name=":2222">Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad, Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, Published by Kautilya Institute of National Studies, Mysore, Page 75 (Glossary)</ref>
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Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly and convincingly<ref><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>. The central concepts found in the Upanishads involve the following aspects of Sanatana Dharma<ref name=":0">Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd</ref>
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Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly and convincingly<ref><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>. The central concepts found in the Upanishads involve the following aspects of Sanatana Dharma<ref name=":0">Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd</ref>
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* Brahman (Supreme Being, Ultimate Reality)
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*Brahman (Supreme Being, Ultimate Reality)
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* Ātman (Self)
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*Ātman (Self)
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* Jiva (Embodiment of Atman)
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*Jiva (Embodiment of Atman)
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* Unity of Brahman and Atman (Know that you are Ātman)  
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*Unity of Brahman and Atman (Know that you are Ātman)
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* Srshti (Origin of Creation)  
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*Srshti (Origin of Creation)
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* Jnana (Knowledge that Unity and Self are not separate)  
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*Jnana (Knowledge that Unity and Self are not separate)
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* Avidya (Ignorance)
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*Avidya (Ignorance)
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* Moksha (The Paramapurushartha)   
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*Moksha (The Paramapurushartha)
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The Upanishads speak about the identity of the Supreme Being, the Brahman, the individual Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara and ultimately the path to ''mokṣa'' or ''mukti.''<ref>http://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Vedas-And-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx</ref> Chronology and dating of Upanishads is not attempted in this article.
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==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==
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There are different versions about the meaning of Upanishad as given by many scholars. The term ''Upaniṣad'' term consists of उप (upa) and नि (ni) उपसर्ग-s (Upasargas or Prefixes) and सद् धातुः (Sad dhatu) followed by किव्प् प्रत्ययः (Kvip pratyaya as Suffix) used in the sense of विशरणगत्यवसादनेषु । Shri Adi Shankaracharya explains in his commentary on Taittriyopanishad about the meanings of Sad dhatu thus <ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1">Sharma, Ram Murthy. (1987 2nd edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/VaidikSahityaKaItihasRamMurthySharma/page/n143 Vaidik Sahitya ka Itihas]'' Delhi : Eastern Book Linkers</ref>
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*विशरण (नाशनम्) to destroy : They destroy the seeds of Avidya causing samsara in a Mumukshu (a sadhaka who wants to attain Moksha), hence this Vidya is called Upanishads<blockquote>अविद्यादेः संसारबीजस्य विशरणाद् विनाशनादित्यनेन अर्थयोगेन विद्या उपनिषदुच्यते । avidyādeḥ saṁsārabījasya viśaraṇād vināśanādityanena arthayogena vidyā upaniṣaducyate ।</blockquote>
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*गति (प्रपणम् वा विद्यर्थकम्) to obtain or to know : That vidya which leads to or make the sadhaka obtain Brahma, is called Upanishad.<blockquote>परं ब्रह्म वा गमयतोति ब्रह्म गमयितृत्वेन योगाद् विद्योपनिषद् । paraṁ brahma vā gamayatoti brahma gamayitr̥tvena yogād vidyopaniṣad ।</blockquote>
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*अवसादन (शिथिलर्थकम्) to loosen or to dissolve : Through which cycles of birth, aging etc painful process are loosened or dissolved (that is bondages of samsara are dissolved allowing the sadhaka to attain the Brahma)<blockquote>गर्भवासजन्मजराद्युपद्रववृन्दस्य लोकान्तरेपौनपुन्येन प्रवृत्तस्य अवसादपितृत्वेन उपनिषदित्युच्यते । garbhavāsajanmajarādyupadravavr̥ndasya lokāntarepaunapunyena pravr̥ttasya avasādapitr̥tvena upaniṣadityucyate ।</blockquote>His also defines the primary meaning of Upanishad as ब्रह्मविद्या (Brahmavidya। Knowledge of Brahma) and secondary meaning as ब्रह्मविद्याप्रतिपादकग्रन्थः (Brahmavidya pratipadaka granth । texts which  teach Brahmavidya). Shankaracharya's commentaries of the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad also support this explanation.
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The Upanishads speak about the identity of the Supreme Being, the Brahman, the individual Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara and ultimately the path to ''mokṣa'' or ''mukti.''<ref>http://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Vedas-And-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx</ref> Chronology and dating of Upanishads is not attempted in this article.
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An alternative explanation of the word Upanishad is "to sit near" derived as follows <ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":4" />
 +
*नि (ni) उपसर्ग (Upasarga or Prefix) in front of सद् धातुः (Sad dhatu) also means 'to sit'.
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*उप (upa) Upasarga is used to mean 'nearness or close to'.
 +
*उपनिषद् term thus means "to sit near"
 +
Thus Upanishad came to mean as ' to sit near the Guru (preceptor) to obtain the 'secret knowledge' or Brahmavidya (as per Shabdakalpadhruma : उपनिषद्यते प्राप्यते ब्रह्म-विद्या अनया इति)
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== व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology ==
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Generally, Upanishads are synonymous with Rahasya (रहस्यम्) or secrecy. Upanishads themselves mention statements such as "इति उपनिषद् इति रहस्यम्" when discussing some important siddhantas. Probably such usages are given to prevent and caution against giving this knowledge to the undeserving.<ref name=":1" />
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There are different versions about the meaning of Upanishad as given by many scholars. The term ''Upaniṣad'' term consists of उप (upa) and नि (ni) उपसर्ग-s (Upasargas or Prefixes) and सद् धातुः (Sad dhatu) followed by किव्प् प्रत्ययः (Kvip pratyaya as Suffix) used in the sense of विशरणगत्यवसादनेषु । Shri Adi Shankaracharya explains in his commentary on Taittriyopanishad about the meanings of Sad dhatu thus <ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1">Sharma, Ram Murthy. (1987 2nd edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/VaidikSahityaKaItihasRamMurthySharma/page/n143 Vaidik Sahitya ka Itihas]'' Delhi : Eastern Book Linkers</ref>
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* विशरण (नाशनम्) to destroy : They destroy the seeds of Avidya causing samsara in a Mumukshu (a sadhaka who wants to attain Moksha), hence this Vidya is called Upanishads
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<blockquote>अविद्यादेः संसारबीजस्य विशरणाद् विनाशनादित्यनेन अर्थयोगेन विद्या उपनिषदुच्यते । avidyādeḥ saṁsārabījasya viśaraṇād vināśanādityanena arthayogena vidyā upaniṣaducyate ।</blockquote>
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* गति (प्रपणम् वा विद्यर्थकम्) to obtain or to know : That vidya which leads to  or make the sadhaka obtain Brahma, is called Upanishad.
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<blockquote>परं ब्रह्म वा गमयतोति ब्रह्म गमयितृत्वेन योगाद् विद्योपनिषद् । paraṁ brahma vā gamayatoti brahma gamayitr̥tvena yogād vidyopaniṣad ।</blockquote>
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* अवसादन (शिथिलर्थकम्) to loosen or to dissolve : Through which cycles of birth, aging etc painful process are loosened or dissolved (that is bondages of samsara are dissolved allowing the sadhaka to attain the Brahma)
  −
<blockquote>गर्भवासजन्मजराद्युपद्रववृन्दस्य लोकान्तरेपौनपुन्येन प्रवृत्तस्य अवसादपितृत्वेन उपनिषदित्युच्यते । garbhavāsajanmajarādyupadravavr̥ndasya lokāntarepaunapunyena pravr̥ttasya avasādapitr̥tvena upaniṣadityucyate ।</blockquote>  
     −
His also defines the primary meaning of Upanishad as ब्रह्मविद्या (Brahmavidya। Knowledge of Brahma) and secondary meaning as ब्रह्मविद्याप्रतिपादकग्रन्थः (Brahmavidya pratipadaka granth । texts which  teach Brahmavidya). Shankaracharya's commentaries of the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad also support this explanation. 
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In the mukhya upanishads, there are many instances of रहस्यम् meaning secret or hidden knowledge especially in Atharvaveda upanishads. Kaushitaki Upanishad for example, contains detailed siddhantas of मनोज्ञानम् and तत्वज्ञानम्  (Psychology and metaphysics). Apart from them they also contain मृतकज्ञानम् (siddhantas around death, travel of Atman etc), बालमृत्यु निवारणम् (preventing untimely childhood deaths) शत्रुविनाशार्थ रहस्यम् (secrets about the destruction of enemies) etc. Chandogya Upanishads gives the secrets about the origin of worlds, Jiva, Jagat, Om and their hidden meanings.<ref name=":1" />
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==Classification of Upanishads==
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An alternative explanation of the word Upanishad is "to sit near" derived as follows <ref name=":42222" /><ref name=":4" />
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More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''mukhya'') Upanishads. The rest of them aid in explaining bhakti or jnana concepts and many are without bhashyas. Some scholars accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13 to be the principal Upanishads and some others accept 108 Upanishads.<ref name=":22">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 1 Vaidika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
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* नि (ni) उपसर्ग (Upasarga or Prefix) in front of सद् धातुः (Sad dhatu) also means 'to sit'. 
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===Basis for Classification===
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* उप (upa) Upasarga is used to mean 'nearness or close to'. 
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Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads based on
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* उपनिषद् term thus means "to sit near"
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#the presence or absence of Shankaracharya's bhasyas (Ten for which bhashyas are available are Dasopanishads and the rest describing devatas. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saurya etc)<ref name=":4" />
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Thus Upanishad came to mean as ' to sit near the Guru (preceptor) to obtain the 'secret knowledge' or Brahmavidya (as per Shabdakalpadhruma : उपनिषद्यते प्राप्यते ब्रह्म-विद्या अनया इति)
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#the ancientness of Upanishad based on association with Aranyakas and Brahmanas<ref name=":42222" />
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#the ancientness and modernness of the Upanishads based on description of deities and other aspects ( Given by Shri Chintamani Vinayak on Page 256 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
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Generally, Upanishads are synonymous with Rahasya (रहस्यम्) or secrecy. Upanishads themselves mention statements such as "इति उपनिषद् इति रहस्यम्" when discussing some important siddhantas. Probably such usages are given to prevent and caution against giving this knowledge to the undeserving.<ref name=":1" />
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#the shanti patha given in each of the Upanishads<ref name=":22" />
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+
#the ancientness and modernness of the Upanishads having prose or metrical compositions (mostly given by Western Indologists like Dr. Daison)<ref name=":42222" />
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In the mukhya upanishads, there are many instances of रहस्यम् meaning secret or hidden knowledge especially in Atharvaveda upanishads. Kaushitaki Upanishad for example, contains detailed siddhantas of मनोज्ञानम् and तत्वज्ञानम्  (Psychology and metaphysics). Apart from them they also contain मृतकज्ञानम् (siddhantas around death, travel of Atman etc), बालमृत्यु निवारणम् (preventing untimely childhood deaths) शत्रुविनाशार्थ रहस्यम् (secrets about the destruction of enemies) etc. Chandogya Upanishads gives the secrets about the origin of worlds, Jiva, Jagat, Om and their hidden meanings.<ref name=":1" />  
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===दशोपनिषदः ॥ Dasopanishads===
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== Classification of Upanishads ==
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More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''mukhya'') Upanishads. The rest of them aid in explaining bhakti or jnana concepts and many are without bhashyas. Some scholars accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13 to be the principal Upanishads and some others accept 108 Upanishads.<ref name=":22">Malladi, Sri. Suryanarayana Sastry (1982) ''Samskruta Vangmaya Charitra, Volume 1 Vaidika Vangmayam'' Hyderabad : Andhra Sarasvata Parishad</ref>
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=== Basis for Classification ===
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Many modern and western indology thinkers have put forth their contemplations on the classification of Upanishads based on  
  −
# the presence or absence of Shankaracharya's bhasyas (Ten for which bhashyas are available are Dasopanishads and the rest describing devatas. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saurya etc)<ref name=":4" />
  −
# the ancientness of Upanishad based on association with Aranyakas and Brahmanas<ref name=":42222" />
  −
# the ancientness and modernness of the Upanishads based on description of deities and other aspects ( Given by Shri Chintamani Vinayak on Page 256 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
  −
# the shanti patha given in each of the Upanishads<ref name=":22" />
  −
# the ancientness and modernness of the Upanishads having prose or metrical compositions (mostly given by Western Indologists like Dr. Daison)<ref name=":42222" />
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=== दशोपनिषदः ॥ Dasopanishads ===
   
Muktikopanishad lists the following ten as principal Upanishads which have received attention from Shri Adi Shankaracharya in form of his bhasyas.<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरः । एेतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं तथा ॥ ''īśa-kēna-kaṭha-praśna-muṇḍa-māṇḍūkya-tittiraḥ । ēētarēyaṁ ca chāndōgyaṁ br̥hadāraṇyakaṁ tathā ॥''</blockquote>The 10 Mukhya Upanishad on which Adi Shankaracharya commented are:
 
Muktikopanishad lists the following ten as principal Upanishads which have received attention from Shri Adi Shankaracharya in form of his bhasyas.<ref name=":4" /><blockquote>ईश-केन-कठ-प्रश्न-मुण्ड-माण्डूक्य-तित्तिरः । एेतरेयं च छान्दोग्यं बृहदारण्यकं तथा ॥ ''īśa-kēna-kaṭha-praśna-muṇḍa-māṇḍūkya-tittiraḥ । ēētarēyaṁ ca chāndōgyaṁ br̥hadāraṇyakaṁ tathā ॥''</blockquote>The 10 Mukhya Upanishad on which Adi Shankaracharya commented are:
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# ईशावाश्योपनिषद् ॥ Ishavasya Upanishad (Shukla Yajur Veda)
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#ईशावाश्योपनिषद् ॥ Ishavasya Upanishad (Shukla Yajur Veda)
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# केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kena Upanishad (Sama Veda)
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#केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kena Upanishad (Sama Veda)
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# कठोपनिषद् ॥ Katha Upanishad (Yajur Veda)
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#कठोपनिषद् ॥ Katha Upanishad (Yajur Veda)
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# प्रश्नोपनिषद् ॥ Prashna Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
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#प्रश्नोपनिषद् ॥ Prashna Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
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# मुण्डकोपनिषद् ॥ Mundaka Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
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#मुण्डकोपनिषद् ॥ Mundaka Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
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# माण्डूक्योपनिषद् ॥ Mandukya Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
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#माण्डूक्योपनिषद् ॥ Mandukya Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
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# तैत्तियोपनिषद् ॥ Taittiriya Upanishad (Yajur Veda)
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#तैत्तियोपनिषद् ॥ Taittiriya Upanishad (Yajur Veda)
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# एेतरेयोपनिषद् ॥ Aitareya Upanishad (Rig Veda)
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#एेतरेयोपनिषद् ॥ Aitareya Upanishad (Rig Veda)
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# छान्दोग्योपनिषद्॥ Chhandogya Upanishad (Sama Veda)
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#छान्दोग्योपनिषद्॥ Chhandogya Upanishad (Sama Veda)
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# बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Yajur Veda)
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#बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Yajur Veda)
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Apart from these ten, कौषीतकि (Kaushitaki) श्वेताश्वतर (Shvetasvatara) and मैत्रायणीय (Maitrayaniya) Upanishads are regarded as ancient since the first two of these three found a mention by Shankaracharya in his Brahmasutra bhashyas along with dashopanishad bhashyas. However, there are no available commentaries on these given by him.
+
Apart from these ten, कौषीतकि (Kaushitaki) श्वेताश्वतर (Shvetasvatara) and मैत्रायणीय (Maitrayaniya) Upanishads are regarded as ancient since the first two of these three found a mention by Shankaracharya in his Brahmasutra bhashyas along with dashopanishad bhashyas. However, there are no available commentaries on these given by him.
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+
===Upanishads as Part of Aranyakas===
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=== Upanishads as Part of Aranyakas ===
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Many Upanishads are the final or exclusive portions of the ''Aranyakas'' or the ''Brahmanas''. But these refer mainly to the dasha upanishads. It may be seen from the table below that some Upanishads not classified in dashopanishads are from Aranyakas. (Ex: Mahanarayaneeya Upanishad, Maitrayaniya Upanishad) while the Atharvana veda associated Upanishads do not have corresponding Brahmanas or Aranyakas as they are unavailable.
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Many Upanishads are the final or exclusive portions of the ''Aranyakas'' or the ''Brahmanas''. But these refer mainly to the dasha upanishads. It may be seen from the table below that some Upanishads not classified in dashopanishads are from Aranyakas. (Ex: Mahanarayaneeya Upanishad, Maitrayaniya Upanishad) while the Atharvana veda associated Upanishads do not have corresponding Brahmanas or Aranyakas as they are unavailable.      
+
{| class="wikitable"
−
 
+
|+Upanishads as part of Aranyakas and Brahmanas
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    {| class="wikitable"
  −
|+
  −
Upanishads as part of Aranyakas and Brahmanas
   
! colspan="2" |Veda
 
! colspan="2" |Veda
 
!What part of Brahmana or Aranyaka constitutes Upanishad
 
!What part of Brahmana or Aranyaka constitutes Upanishad
Line 88: Line 75:  
|-
 
|-
 
|10th Prapathaka of Taittriya Aranyaka (also considered as Khila khanda) (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
 
|10th Prapathaka of Taittriya Aranyaka (also considered as Khila khanda) (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
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|महानारायणीय उपनिषद् ॥ Mahanarayaneeya Upanishad  
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|महानारायणीय उपनिषद् ॥ Mahanarayaneeya Upanishad
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Kathasamhita or Kathavalli (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
 
|Kathasamhita or Kathavalli (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
 
|कठोपनिषद् ॥ Katha Upanishad
 
|कठोपनिषद् ॥ Katha Upanishad
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Maitrayaniya Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)  
+
|Maitrayaniya Aranyaka (Page 251 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
 
|मैत्रायणीय Maitrayaniya Upanishad
 
|मैत्रायणीय Maitrayaniya Upanishad
 
|-
 
|-
Line 105: Line 92:  
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Samaveda
 
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Samaveda
 
|10th Anuvaka of 4th Adhyaya of जैमिनीय ॥ Jaiminiya (Talavakara तलवकार) Brahmana (Page 253 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
 
|10th Anuvaka of 4th Adhyaya of जैमिनीय ॥ Jaiminiya (Talavakara तलवकार) Brahmana (Page 253 of Reference <ref name=":4" />)
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|केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kena Upanishad  
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|केनोपनिषद् ॥ Kena Upanishad
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Last 10 Adhyayas of Chandogyabrahmana of Kauthuma Shakha (Page 55 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
 
|Last 10 Adhyayas of Chandogyabrahmana of Kauthuma Shakha (Page 55 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
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|छान्दोग्योपनिषद्॥ Chhandogya Upanishad  
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|छान्दोग्योपनिषद्॥ Chhandogya Upanishad
 
|-
 
|-
 
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Adharvaveda
 
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Adharvaveda
 
|Associated with Pippalada brahmana (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
 
|Associated with Pippalada brahmana (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
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|प्रश्नोपनिषद् ॥ Prashna Upanishad  
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|प्रश्नोपनिषद् ॥ Prashna Upanishad
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Associated with Shaunaka samhita (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
 
|Associated with Shaunaka samhita (Page 54 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
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|मुण्डकोपनिषद् ॥ Mundaka Upanishad  
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|मुण्डकोपनिषद् ॥ Mundaka Upanishad
 
|-
 
|-
 
|Associated with Atharvaveda (Page 55 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
 
|Associated with Atharvaveda (Page 55 of Reference <ref name=":42222" />)
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|माण्डूक्योपनिषद् ॥ Mandukya Upanishad  
+
|माण्डूक्योपनिषद् ॥ Mandukya Upanishad
 
|}
 
|}
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+
===Deity and Samkhya Based Classification===
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=== Deity and Samkhya Based Classification ===
   
Pt. Shri. Chintamani Vinayak Vaidya has assigned the ancientness (प्राचीनता) or modernness (अर्वाचीनता) of Upanishads using the two factors<ref name=":4" />
 
Pt. Shri. Chintamani Vinayak Vaidya has assigned the ancientness (प्राचीनता) or modernness (अर्वाचीनता) of Upanishads using the two factors<ref name=":4" />
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# Siddhanta of Anatmarupa Brahma (a supreme power beyond and above deities)
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#Siddhanta of Anatmarupa Brahma (a supreme power beyond and above deities)
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# Vishnu or Shiva deities are accepted as paradevata (supreme deity) and are praised
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#Vishnu or Shiva deities are accepted as paradevata (supreme deity) and are praised
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# Principles of Samkhya Siddhanta (Prakriti, Purusha, Gunas-Satva, Rajas and Tamas)
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#Principles of Samkhya Siddhanta (Prakriti, Purusha, Gunas-Satva, Rajas and Tamas)
 
It is proved beyond doubt that the ancient upanishads have described a Supreme Anatmarupa Brahma, above the vaidika deities, who has created regulated and maintained order of the creation. They are thus very ancient and include Aitareya, Isha, Taittriya, Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Prashna, Mundaka and Mandukya Upanishads.
 
It is proved beyond doubt that the ancient upanishads have described a Supreme Anatmarupa Brahma, above the vaidika deities, who has created regulated and maintained order of the creation. They are thus very ancient and include Aitareya, Isha, Taittriya, Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Prashna, Mundaka and Mandukya Upanishads.
   −
Only in the more recent upanishads one can see the older ones in praise of Vishnu as the Supreme Being followed by  the more recent one's in praise of Shiva. In this group is classified Kathopanishad where Vishnu is the Supreme Being. Krishna Yajurveda Upanishads are famous for their Shiva and Rudra stutis (Rudra Prashna is a famous stuti) and in this way Shevetashvatara Upanishad which accepts Shiva as paradevata is more recent compared to Kathopanishad. In this series, Maitrayaniya Upanishad which accepts all the Trimurti's (Brahma Vishnu and Shiva) is more recent than the above two mentioned Upanishads.  
+
Only in the more recent upanishads one can see the older ones in praise of Vishnu as the Supreme Being followed by  the more recent one's in praise of Shiva. In this group is classified Kathopanishad where Vishnu is the Supreme Being. Krishna Yajurveda Upanishads are famous for their Shiva and Rudra stutis (Rudra Prashna is a famous stuti) and in this way Shevetashvatara Upanishad which accepts Shiva as paradevata is more recent compared to Kathopanishad. In this series, Maitrayaniya Upanishad which accepts all the Trimurti's (Brahma Vishnu and Shiva) is more recent than the above two mentioned Upanishads.
    
Katha Upanishad (which has no principles of Samkhya) is ancient as against Shvetashvatara (which expounds principles of Samkhya and its preceptor Kapila Maharshi), further more recent is Maitrayaniya Upanishad where samkhya philosophy along with the description of the gunas is given in detail.<ref name=":4" />
 
Katha Upanishad (which has no principles of Samkhya) is ancient as against Shvetashvatara (which expounds principles of Samkhya and its preceptor Kapila Maharshi), further more recent is Maitrayaniya Upanishad where samkhya philosophy along with the description of the gunas is given in detail.<ref name=":4" />
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+
===Shanti Patha Based Classification===
−
=== Shanti Patha Based Classification ===
   
Some upanishads are not related to any veda, while some are definitely associated with one or the other veda. Based on the Shanti patha that is given in the beginning of the Upanishads the following classification is proposed.(Page 288-289 of Reference <ref name=":22" />)
 
Some upanishads are not related to any veda, while some are definitely associated with one or the other veda. Based on the Shanti patha that is given in the beginning of the Upanishads the following classification is proposed.(Page 288-289 of Reference <ref name=":22" />)
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
{| class="wikitable"
Line 158: Line 143:  
|Adharvanaveda
 
|Adharvanaveda
 
|Bhadramkarnebhi...
 
|Bhadramkarnebhi...
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|Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Brhadjabala, Nrsimhatapini, Narada parivrajaka, Sitaa, Sharabha, Mahanarayana, Ramarahasya, Ramatapini, Shandilya, Paramahamsa parivrajaka, Annapurna, Surya, Atma, Parambrahma, Pashupata, Tripuratapini, Devi, Bhavana, Bhasmajabala, Ganapati, Mahavakya, Gopalatapini, Krishna, Hayagriva, Garuda, Dattatreya, Atharvashikha, Atharvashiro Upanishads (31)  
+
|Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Brhadjabala, Nrsimhatapini, Narada parivrajaka, Sitaa, Sharabha, Mahanarayana, Ramarahasya, Ramatapini, Shandilya, Paramahamsa parivrajaka, Annapurna, Surya, Atma, Parambrahma, Pashupata, Tripuratapini, Devi, Bhavana, Bhasmajabala, Ganapati, Mahavakya, Gopalatapini, Krishna, Hayagriva, Garuda, Dattatreya, Atharvashikha, Atharvashiro Upanishads (31)
 
|}
 
|}
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+
==='''Authorship'''===
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=== '''Authorship''' ===
   
The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown. The various philosophical theories in the early Upanishads have been attributed to famous seers such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Balaki, Pippalada and Sanatkumara.<ref name=":0" /> Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participated in the dialogues and are also credited in the early Upanishads.
 
The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown. The various philosophical theories in the early Upanishads have been attributed to famous seers such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Balaki, Pippalada and Sanatkumara.<ref name=":0" /> Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participated in the dialogues and are also credited in the early Upanishads.
   −
There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to ''Shvetashvatara'', and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.  
+
There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to ''Shvetashvatara'', and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.
−
 
+
==Upanishad vishaya==
−
== Upanishad vishaya ==
   
The main concept of Upanishads is the discussion about Paramatmatattva. There are two kinds of Vidyas : Para and Apara. Of these Paravidya is supreme and is called Brahmavidya. Upanishads present the detailed discussion about Paravidya. Aparavidya is primarily related to Karmas, hence called Karmavidya. The fruits of Karmavidya are perishable while the results of Brahmavidya are indestructable. Aparavidya may not lead one to Moksha (may lead to svarga and other worlds) but Paravidya always gives Moksha.<ref name=":42222" />
 
The main concept of Upanishads is the discussion about Paramatmatattva. There are two kinds of Vidyas : Para and Apara. Of these Paravidya is supreme and is called Brahmavidya. Upanishads present the detailed discussion about Paravidya. Aparavidya is primarily related to Karmas, hence called Karmavidya. The fruits of Karmavidya are perishable while the results of Brahmavidya are indestructable. Aparavidya may not lead one to Moksha (may lead to svarga and other worlds) but Paravidya always gives Moksha.<ref name=":42222" />
   Line 172: Line 155:     
Based on their content Upanishads can be divided into six categories.<ref name=":42222" />
 
Based on their content Upanishads can be divided into six categories.<ref name=":42222" />
−
# Vedanta siddhanta
+
#Vedanta siddhanta
−
# Yoga siddhanta
+
#Yoga siddhanta
−
# Samkhya siddhanta
+
#Samkhya siddhanta
−
# Vaishnava siddhanta
+
#Vaishnava siddhanta
−
# Shaiva siddhanta
+
#Shaiva siddhanta
−
# Shakta siddhanta
+
#Shakta siddhanta
 
According to the beliefs, principles and nature of a particular sampradaya, Upanishads have been composed in later days.
 
According to the beliefs, principles and nature of a particular sampradaya, Upanishads have been composed in later days.
−
 
+
===Special Points===
−
=== Special Points ===
   
Although all Upanishads proclaim that the goal of human life, embroiled in the flow of samsara, is to attain Jnana that leads to Moksha, the ultimate paramapurushartha, each of the upanishads have their own special features about their siddhantas as follows <ref name=":22" />
 
Although all Upanishads proclaim that the goal of human life, embroiled in the flow of samsara, is to attain Jnana that leads to Moksha, the ultimate paramapurushartha, each of the upanishads have their own special features about their siddhantas as follows <ref name=":22" />
−
# Katha discusses the doubts about post death path of a Jiva  
+
#Katha discusses the doubts about post death path of a Jiva
−
# Shvetasvatara says Jagat and Paramatma are Maya
+
#Shvetasvatara says Jagat and Paramatma are Maya
−
# Brhadaranyaka gives the paths to higher worlds
+
#Brhadaranyaka gives the paths to higher worlds
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# Mundakopanishad stressed the fact that the whole Universe is nothing but Parabrahma
+
#Mundakopanishad stressed the fact that the whole Universe is nothing but Parabrahma
−
# Isavasya defines that a Jnani is one who sees Self and Paramatma pervading the world.
+
#Isavasya defines that a Jnani is one who sees Self and Paramatma pervading the world.
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# Taittriyopanishad proclaims that Brahmajnana leads to Moksha.
+
#Taittriyopanishad proclaims that Brahmajnana leads to Moksha.
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# Chandogyopanishad gives the outline of how janmas (births) happen and paths to reach Brahmaloka.
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#Chandogyopanishad gives the outline of how janmas (births) happen and paths to reach Brahmaloka.
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# Prashnopanishad logically answers the questions regarding the nature of Atma.
+
#Prashnopanishad logically answers the questions regarding the nature of Atma.
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# Mandukya upanishad proclaims Atman to be Brahman  
+
#Mandukya upanishad proclaims Atman to be Brahman
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# Aitareya upanishad establishes the characteristics of Brahma
+
#Aitareya upanishad establishes the characteristics of Brahma
−
 
+
==='''Geography'''===
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=== '''Geography''' ===
+
The general area of the composition of the early Upanishads was northern India, the region bounded on the west by the upper Indus valley, on the east by lower Ganges region, on the north by the Himalayan foothills, and on the south by the Vindhya mountain range. There is confidence about the early Upanishads being the product of the geographical center of ancient Brahmanism, comprising the regions of Kuru-Panchala and Kosala-Videha together with the areas immediately to the south and west of these.<sup>[30]</sup> This region covers modern Bihar, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan and northern Madhya Pradesh.<sup>[6]</sup>
−
The general area of the composition of the early Upanishads was northern
  −
India, the region bounded on the west by the upper Indus valley, on the east by
  −
lower Ganges region, on the north by the Himalayan foothills, and on the south
  −
by the Vindhya mountain range. There is
  −
confidence about the early Upanishads being the product of the geographical
  −
center of ancient Brahmanism, comprising the regions of Kuru-Panchala and Kosala-Videha together with the areas immediately to the south and west of these.<sup>[30]</sup> This region covers modern Bihar, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan and northern Madhya Pradesh.<sup>[6]</sup>
     −
While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact
+
While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact locations of the individual Upanishads, the results are tentative. Witzel identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area of Videha, whose king, Janaka, features prominently in the Upanishad.<sup>[31]</sup>
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locations of the individual Upanishads, the results are tentative. Witzel
  −
identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area
  −
of Videha, whose king, Janaka, features prominently in the Upanishad.<sup>[31]</sup>
     −
The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more Western than an
+
The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more Western than an Eastern location in Indian subcontinent, possibly somewhere in the western region of the Kuru-Panchala country.<sup>[32]</sup> Compared to the Principal Upanishads, the new Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā belong to an entirely different region, probably southern India, and are considerably relatively recent.<sup>[33]</sup> In fourth chapter of the Kaushitaki Upanishad, a location named Kashi (modern Varanasi) is mentioned.<sup>[6]</sup>
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Eastern location in Indian subcontinent, possibly somewhere in the western
  −
region of the Kuru-Panchala country.<sup>[32]</sup> Compared to the Principal Upanishads, the new
  −
Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā belong to an entirely different region,
  −
probably southern India, and are considerably relatively recent.<sup>[33]</sup> In fourth chapter of the Kaushitaki Upanishad,
  −
a location named Kashi (modern Varanasi) is mentioned.<sup>[6]</sup>
     −
Each of the principal ''Upanishads'' can be associated with one of
+
Each of the principal ''Upanishads'' can be associated with one of the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas (''shakhas'').<sup>[49]</sup> Many Shakhas are said to have existed, of which only a few remain. The new ''Upanishads'' often have little relation to the Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta philosopher: their language differs from that of the classic ''Upanishads'', being less subtle and more formalized. As a result, they are not difficult to comprehend for the modern reader.<sup>[50]</sup>
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the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas (''shakhas'').<sup>[49]</sup> Many Shakhas are said to have existed, of which
  −
only a few remain. The new ''Upanishads'' often have little relation to the
  −
Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta
  −
philosopher: their language differs from that of the classic ''Upanishads'',
  −
being less subtle and more formalized. As a result, they are not difficult to
  −
comprehend for the modern reader.<sup>[50]</sup>
      
'''New Upanishads'''
 
'''New Upanishads'''
   −
There is no fixed list of the ''Upanishads'' as newer ones, beyond
+
There is no fixed list of the ''Upanishads'' as newer ones, beyond the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and composed.<sup>[52]</sup> In 1908, for example, four previously unknown Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts, and these were named ''Bashkala'', ''Chhagaleya'', ''Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', by Friedrich Schrader,<sup>[53]</sup> who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.<sup>[54]</sup> The text of three, the ''Chhagaleya, Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', were incomplete and inconsistent, likely poorly maintained or corrupted.<sup>[54]</sup>
−
the Muktika anthology of 108 Upanishads, have continued to be discovered and
  −
composed.<sup>[52]</sup> In 1908, for example, four previously unknown
  −
Upanishads were discovered in newly found manuscripts, and these were named ''Bashkala'',
  −
''Chhagaleya'', ''Arsheya'' and ''Saunaka'', by Friedrich Schrader,<sup>[53]</sup> who attributed them to the first prose period
  −
of the Upanishads.<sup>[54]</sup> The text of three, the ''Chhagaleya, Arsheya''
  −
and ''Saunaka'', were incomplete and inconsistent, likely poorly maintained
  −
or corrupted.<sup>[54]</sup>
     −
Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu
+
Ancient Upanishads have long enjoyed a revered position in Hindu traditions, and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads.<sup>[55]</sup> These "new Upanishads" number in the hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology<sup>[24]</sup> to renunciation<sup>[25]</sup> to sectarian theories.<sup>[55]</sup> They were composed between the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era (~1600 CE).<sup>[55][25]</sup> While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre-3rd century CE,<sup>[28][29]</sup> many of these new texts under the title of "Upanishads" originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE,<sup>[55]</sup> they are not Vedic texts, and some do not deal with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads.<sup>[58]</sup>
−
traditions, and authors of numerous sectarian texts have tried to benefit from
  −
this reputation by naming their texts as Upanishads.<sup>[55]</sup> These "new Upanishads" number in the
  −
hundreds, cover diverse range of topics from physiology<sup>[24]</sup> to renunciation<sup>[25]</sup> to sectarian theories.<sup>[55]</sup> They were composed between the last centuries
  −
of the 1st millennium BCE through the early modern era (~1600 CE).<sup>[55][25]</sup> While over two dozen of the minor Upanishads are dated to pre-3rd
  −
century CE,<sup>[28][29]</sup> many of these new texts under the title of
  −
"Upanishads" originated in the first half of the 2nd millennium CE,<sup>[55]</sup> they are not Vedic texts, and some do not deal
  −
with themes found in the Vedic Upanishads.<sup>[58]</sup>
     −
The main Shakta Upanishads, for example, mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative
+
The main Shakta Upanishads, for example, mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic ''Shakta Upaniṣads'' vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their "location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas. Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not accepted in Hinduism.<sup>[59]</sup>
−
differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic ''Shakta Upaniṣads'' vary,
  −
reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their
  −
"location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The
  −
Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for
  −
non-Tantrikas. Sectarian texts such as these do not enjoy status as shruti and thus the authority of the new Upanishads as scripture is not
  −
accepted in Hinduism.<sup>[59]</sup>
      
'''Association with Vedas'''
 
'''Association with Vedas'''
   −
All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda (there are two primary versions or ''Samhitas'' of the Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda, Krishna Yajurveda), and Atharvaveda.<sup>[60]</sup> During the modern era, the ancient Upanishads
+
All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda (there are two primary versions or ''Samhitas'' of the Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda, Krishna Yajurveda), and Atharvaveda.<sup>[60]</sup> During the modern era, the ancient Upanishads that were embedded texts in the Vedas, were detached from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic text, compiled into separate texts and these were then gathered into anthologies of Upanishads.<sup>[55]</sup> These lists associated each Upanishad with one of the four Vedas, many such lists exist, and these lists are inconsistent across India in terms of which Upanishads are included and how the newer Upanishads are assigned to the ancient Vedas. In south India, the collected list based on Muktika Upanishad,<sup>[note 5]</sup> and published in Telugu language, became the most common by the 19th-century and this is a list of 108 Upanishads.<sup>[55][26]</sup> In north India, a list of 52 Upanishads has been most common.<sup>[55]</sup>
−
that were embedded texts in the Vedas, were detached from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of Vedic text, compiled into separate texts and these were then
  −
gathered into anthologies of Upanishads.<sup>[55]</sup> These lists associated each Upanishad with one
  −
of the four Vedas, many such lists exist, and these lists are inconsistent
  −
across India in terms of which Upanishads are included and how the newer
  −
Upanishads are assigned to the ancient Vedas. In south India, the collected
  −
list based on Muktika Upanishad,<sup>[note 5]</sup> and published in Telugu language, became the most common by
  −
the 19th-century and this is a list of 108 Upanishads.<sup>[55][26]</sup> In north India, a list of 52 Upanishads has been most common.<sup>[55]</sup>
     −
The Muktikā Upanishad's list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 13 as ''mukhya'',<sup>[27][note 6]</sup> 21 as Sāmānya Vedānta, 20 as Sannyāsa,<sup>[28]</sup> 14 as Vaishnava, 12 as Shaiva, 8 as Shakta, and 20 as Yoga.<sup>[29]</sup> The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktikā are shown in the table
+
The Muktikā Upanishad's list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 13 as ''mukhya'',<sup>[27][note 6]</sup> 21 as Sāmānya Vedānta, 20 as Sannyāsa,<sup>[28]</sup> 14 as Vaishnava, 12 as Shaiva, 8 as Shakta, and 20 as Yoga.<sup>[29]</sup> The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktikā are shown in the table below.<sup>[60]</sup> The mukhya Upanishads are the most important and highlighted.
−
below.<sup>[60]</sup> The mukhya Upanishads are the most important
+
{| class="MsoNormalTable"
−
and highlighted.
+
| colspan="9" |Veda-Upanishad association
−
{| class="MsoNormalTable"  
+
|-
−
  | colspan="9" |
+
|'''Veda'''
−
Veda-Upanishad association  
+
|'''Number<sup>[60]</sup>'''
−
|-
+
|'''Mukhya<sup>[27]</sup>'''
−
  |
+
|'''Sāmānya'''
−
'''Veda'''  
+
|'''Sannyāsa<sup>[28]</sup>'''
−
  |
+
|'''Śākta<sup>[30]</sup>'''
−
'''Number<sup>[60]</sup>'''  
+
|'''Vaiṣṇava<sup>[31]</sup>'''
−
  |
+
|'''Śaiva<sup>[32]</sup>'''
−
'''Mukhya<sup>[27]</sup>'''
+
|'''Yoga<sup>[29]</sup>'''
−
  |
+
|-
−
'''Sāmānya'''  
+
|Ṛigveda
−
  |
+
|10
−
'''Sannyāsa<sup>[28]</sup>'''  
+
|Aitareya, Kauśītāki
−
  |
+
|Ātmabodha, Mudgala
−
'''Śākta<sup>[30]</sup>'''  
+
|Nirvāṇa
−
  |
+
|Tripura, Saubhāgya-lakshmi, Bahvṛca
−
'''Vaiṣṇava<sup>[31]</sup>'''  
+
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
−
  |
+
|Akṣamālika
−
'''Śaiva<sup>[32]</sup>'''  
+
|Nādabindu
−
  |
+
|-
−
'''Yoga<sup>[29]</sup>'''  
+
|Samaveda
−
|-
+
|16
−
  |
+
|Chāndogya, Kena
−
Ṛigveda
+
|Vajrasūchi, Maha, Sāvitrī
−
  |
+
|Āruṇi, Maitreya, Brhat-Sannyāsa, Kuṇḍika (Laghu-Sannyāsa)
−
10
+
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
−
  |
+
|Vāsudeva, Avyakta
−
Aitareya, Kauśītāki
+
|Rudrākṣa, Jābāli
−
  |
+
|Yogachūḍāmaṇi, Darśana
−
Ātmabodha, Mudgala
+
|-
−
  |
+
|Krishna Yajurveda
−
Nirvāṇa
+
|32
−
  |
+
|Taittiriya, Katha, Śvetāśvatara, Maitrāyaṇi<sup>[note 7]</sup>
−
Tripura, Saubhāgya-lakshmi, Bahvṛca
+
|Sarvasāra, Śukarahasya, Skanda, Garbha, Śārīraka, Ekākṣara, Akṣi
−
  |
+
|Brahma, (Laghu, Brhad) Avadhūta, Kaṭhasruti
−
-
+
|Sarasvatī-rahasya
−
  |
+
|Nārāyaṇa, Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa
−
Akṣamālika
+
|Kaivalya, Kālāgnirudra, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Rudrahṛdaya, Pañcabrahma
−
  |
+
|Amṛtabindu, Tejobindu, Amṛtanāda, Kṣurika, Dhyānabindu, Brahmavidyā, Yogatattva, Yogaśikhā, Yogakuṇḍalini, Varāha
−
Nādabindu  
+
|-
−
|-
+
|Shukla Yajurveda
−
  |
+
|19
−
Samaveda
+
|Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Īśa
−
  |
+
|Subala, Mantrika, Niralamba, Paingala, Adhyatma, Muktika
−
16  
+
|Jābāla, Paramahaṃsa, Bhikṣuka, Turīyātītavadhuta, Yājñavalkya, Śāṭyāyaniya
−
  |
+
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
−
Chāndogya, Kena
+
|Tārasāra
−
  |
+
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
−
Vajrasūchi, Maha, Sāvitrī
+
|Advayatāraka, Haṃsa, Triśikhi, Maṇḍalabrāhmaṇa
−
  |
+
|-
−
Āruṇi, Maitreya, Brhat-Sannyāsa, Kuṇḍika (Laghu-Sannyāsa)
+
|Atharvaveda
−
  |
+
|31
−
-
+
|Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Praśna
−
  |
+
|Ātmā, Sūrya, Prāṇāgnihotra<sup>[33]</sup>
−
Vāsudeva, Avyakta
+
|Āśrama, Nārada-parivrājaka, Paramahaṃsa parivrājaka, Parabrahma
−
  |
+
|Sītā, Devī, Tripurātapini, Bhāvana
−
Rudrākṣa, Jābāli
+
|Nṛsiṃhatāpanī, Mahānārāyaṇa (Tripād vibhuti), Rāmarahasya, Rāmatāpaṇi, Gopālatāpani, Kṛṣṇa, Hayagrīva, Dattātreya, Gāruḍa
−
  |
+
|Atharvasiras,<sup>[34]</sup> Atharvaśikha, Bṛhajjābāla, Śarabha, Bhasma, Gaṇapati
−
Yogachūḍāmaṇi, Darśana  
+
|Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya
−
|-
+
|-
−
  |
+
|Total Upanishads
−
Krishna
+
|108
−
Yajurveda
+
|13<sup>[note 6]</sup>
−
  |
+
|21
−
32  
+
|19
−
  |
+
|8
−
Taittiriya, Katha, Śvetāśvatara, Maitrāyaṇi<sup>[note 7]</sup>
+
|14
−
  |
+
|13
−
Sarvasāra, Śukarahasya, Skanda, Garbha, Śārīraka, Ekākṣara, Akṣi
+
|20
−
  |
+
|}'''Philosophy'''
−
Brahma, (Laghu, Brhad) Avadhūta, Kaṭhasruti
  −
  |
  −
Sarasvatī-rahasya
  −
  |
  −
Nārāyaṇa, Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa
  −
  |
  −
Kaivalya, Kālāgnirudra, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Rudrahṛdaya, Pañcabrahma
  −
  |
  −
Amṛtabindu, Tejobindu, Amṛtanāda, Kṣurika, Dhyānabindu, Brahmavidyā, Yogatattva, Yogaśikhā, Yogakuṇḍalini, Varāha  
  −
|-
  −
  |
  −
Shukla
  −
Yajurveda
  −
  |
  −
19  
  −
  |
  −
Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Īśa
  −
  |
  −
Subala, Mantrika, Niralamba, Paingala, Adhyatma, Muktika
  −
  |
  −
Jābāla, Paramahaṃsa, Bhikṣuka, Turīyātītavadhuta, Yājñavalkya, Śāṭyāyaniya
  −
  |
  −
-
  −
  |
  −
Tārasāra
  −
  |
  −
-
  −
  |
  −
Advayatāraka, Haṃsa, Triśikhi, Maṇḍalabrāhmaṇa  
  −
|-
  −
  |
  −
Atharvaveda  
  −
  |
  −
31  
  −
  |
  −
Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Praśna
  −
  |
  −
Ātmā, Sūrya, Prāṇāgnihotra<sup>[33]</sup>
  −
  |
  −
Āśrama,
  −
Nārada-parivrājaka, Paramahaṃsa parivrājaka, Parabrahma
  −
  |
  −
Sītā, Devī, Tripurātapini, Bhāvana
  −
  |
  −
Nṛsiṃhatāpanī, Mahānārāyaṇa (Tripād vibhuti), Rāmarahasya, Rāmatāpaṇi, Gopālatāpani, Kṛṣṇa, Hayagrīva, Dattātreya, Gāruḍa
  −
  |
  −
Atharvasiras,<sup>[34]</sup> Atharvaśikha, Bṛhajjābāla, Śarabha, Bhasma, Gaṇapati
  −
  |
  −
Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya  
  −
|-
  −
  |
  −
Total
  −
Upanishads
  −
  |
  −
108
  −
  |
  −
13<sup>[note 6]</sup>  
  −
  |
  −
21  
  −
  |
  −
19
  −
  |
  −
8  
  −
  |
  −
14
  −
  |
  −
13  
  −
  |
  −
20  
  −
|}
  −
'''Philosophy'''
      
''Main article: Vedanta''
 
''Main article: Vedanta''
   −
The Upanishadic age was characterized by a pluralism of worldviews.
+
The Upanishadic age was characterized by a pluralism of worldviews. While some Upanishads have been deemed 'monistic', others, including the Katha Upanishad, are dualistic.<sup>[74]</sup> The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the foundation of its Vedanta school.<sup>[75]</sup> They contain a plurality of ideas.<sup>[76][note 8]</sup>
−
While some Upanishads have been deemed 'monistic', others, including the Katha Upanishad, are dualistic.<sup>[74]</sup> The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that
  −
inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the
  −
foundation of its Vedanta school.<sup>[75]</sup> They contain a plurality of ideas.<sup>[76][note 8]</sup>
     −
The Upanishads include sections on philosophical theories that have been
+
The Upanishads include sections on philosophical theories that have been at the foundation of Indian traditions. For example, the Chandogya Upanishad includes one of the earliest known declaration of Ahimsa (non-violence) as an ethical precept.<sup>[39][40]</sup> Discussion of other ethical premises such as Damah (temperance, self-restraint), Satya (truthfulness), Dāna (charity), Ārjava (non-hypocrisy), Daya (compassion) and others are found in the oldest Upanishads and many later Upanishads.<sup>[41][42]</sup> Similarly, the Karma doctrine is presented in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which is the oldest Upanishad.<sup>[43]</sup>
−
at the foundation of Indian traditions. For example, the Chandogya Upanishad includes one of the earliest
  −
known declaration of Ahimsa (non-violence) as an ethical precept.<sup>[39][40]</sup> Discussion of other ethical premises such as Damah (temperance, self-restraint), Satya (truthfulness), Dāna (charity), Ārjava (non-hypocrisy), Daya (compassion) and others are found in the oldest Upanishads and many
  −
later Upanishads.<sup>[41][42]</sup> Similarly,
  −
the Karma doctrine is presented in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which is the oldest
  −
Upanishad.<sup>[43]</sup>
      
'''Development of thought'''
 
'''Development of thought'''
   −
While the hymns of the Vedas emphasize rituals and the Brahmanas serve
+
While the hymns of the Vedas emphasize rituals and the Brahmanas serve as a liturgical manual for those Vedic rituals, the spirit of the Upanishads is inherently opposed to ritual.<sup>[86]</sup> The older Upanishads launch attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Chāndogya Upanishad parodies those who indulge in the acts of sacrifice by comparing them with a procession of dogs chanting ''Om! Let's eat. Om! Let's drink''.<sup>[86]</sup>
−
as a liturgical manual for those Vedic rituals, the spirit of the Upanishads is
  −
inherently opposed to ritual.<sup>[86]</sup> The older Upanishads launch attacks of
  −
increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than
  −
the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Chāndogya Upanishad
  −
parodies those who indulge in the acts of sacrifice by comparing them with a
  −
procession of dogs chanting ''Om! Let's eat. Om! Let's drink''.<sup>[86]</sup>
     −
The Kaushitaki Upanishad asserts that "external
+
The Kaushitaki Upanishad asserts that "external rituals such as Agnihotram offered in the morning and in the evening, must be replaced with inner Agnihotram, the ritual of introspection", and that "not rituals, but knowledge should be one's pursuit".<sup>[44]</sup> The Mundaka Upanishad declares how man has been called upon, promised benefits for, scared unto and misled into performing sacrifices, oblations and pious works.<sup>[45]</sup> Mundaka thereafter asserts this is foolish and frail, by those who encourage it and those who follow it, because it makes no difference to man's current life and after-life, it is like blind men leading the blind, it is a mark of conceit and vain knowledge, ignorant inertia like that of children, a futile useless practice.<sup>[45][46]</sup> The Maitri Upanishad states,<sup>[47]</sup>
−
rituals such as Agnihotram offered in the morning and in the evening, must be replaced with inner
  −
Agnihotram, the ritual of introspection", and that "not rituals, but
  −
knowledge should be one's pursuit".<sup>[44]</sup> The Mundaka Upanishad declares how man has been
  −
called upon, promised benefits for, scared unto and misled into performing
  −
sacrifices, oblations and pious works.<sup>[45]</sup> Mundaka thereafter asserts this is foolish and frail, by those who
  −
encourage it and those who follow it, because it makes no difference to man's
  −
current life and after-life, it is like blind men leading the blind, it is a
  −
mark of conceit and vain knowledge, ignorant inertia like that of children, a
  −
futile useless practice.<sup>[45][46]</sup> The Maitri Upanishad states,<sup>[47]</sup>
     −
The performance of all the sacrifices, described in the
+
The performance of all the sacrifices, described in the Maitrayana-Brahmana, is to lead up in the end to a knowledge of Brahman, to prepare a man for meditation. Therefore, let such man, after he has laid those fires,<sup>[91]</sup> meditate on the Self, to become complete and perfect.
−
Maitrayana-Brahmana, is to lead up in the end to a knowledge of Brahman, to
  −
prepare a man for meditation. Therefore, let such man, after he has laid those
  −
fires,<sup>[91]</sup> meditate on the Self, to become complete and
  −
perfect.
     −
''— Maitri
+
''— Maitri'' Upanishad<sup>[92][93]</sup>
−
Upanishad<sup>[92][93]</sup>''
     −
The opposition to the ritual is not explicit in the oldest Upanishads.
+
The opposition to the ritual is not explicit in the oldest Upanishads. On occasions, the Upanishads extend the task of the Aranyakas by making the ritual allegorical and giving it a philosophical meaning. For example, the Brihadaranyaka interprets the practice of horse-sacrifice or ''ashvamedha'' allegorically. It states that the over-lordship of the earth may be acquired by sacrificing a horse. It then goes on to say that spiritual autonomy can only be achieved by renouncing the universe which is conceived in the image of a horse.<sup>[86]</sup>
−
On occasions, the Upanishads extend the task of the Aranyakas by making the
  −
ritual allegorical and giving it a philosophical meaning. For example, the
  −
Brihadaranyaka interprets the practice of horse-sacrifice or ''ashvamedha'' allegorically. It states that
  −
the over-lordship of the earth may be acquired by sacrificing a horse. It then
  −
goes on to say that spiritual autonomy can only be achieved by renouncing the
  −
universe which is conceived in the image of a horse.<sup>[86]</sup>
     −
In similar fashion, Vedic gods such as the ''Agni'', ''Aditya'', ''Indra'',
+
In similar fashion, Vedic gods such as the ''Agni'', ''Aditya'', ''Indra'', ''Rudra'', ''Visnu'', ''Brahma'' and others become equated in the Upanishads to the supreme, immortal and incorporeal Brahman-Atman of the Upanishads, god becomes synonymous with Self, and is declared to be everywhere, inmost being of each human being and within every living creature.<sup>[48][49][50]</sup> The one reality or ''ekam'' sat'' of the Vedas becomes the ''ekam eva advitiyam'' or "the one and'' only and sans a second" in the Upanishads.<sup>[86]</sup> Brahman-Atman and Self-realization develops, in the Upanishad, as the means to moksha (liberation, freedom in this life or after-life).<sup>[50][51][52]</sup>
−
''Rudra'', ''Visnu'', ''Brahma'' and others become equated in the
  −
Upanishads to the supreme, immortal and incorporeal Brahman-Atman of the
  −
Upanishads, god becomes synonymous with Self, and is declared to be everywhere,
  −
inmost being of each human being and within every living creature.<sup>[48][49][50]</sup> The one reality or ''ekam
  −
sat'' of the Vedas becomes the ''ekam eva advitiyam'' or "the one and
  −
only and sans a second" in the Upanishads.<sup>[86]</sup> Brahman-Atman and Self-realization develops, in
  −
the Upanishad, as the means to moksha (liberation, freedom in this life or after-life).<sup>[50][51][52]</sup>
      
'''Brahman and Atman'''
 
'''Brahman and Atman'''
Line 471: Line 294:  
''Main articles: Ātman (Hinduism) and Brahman''
 
''Main articles: Ātman (Hinduism) and Brahman''
   −
Two concepts that are of paramount importance in the Upanishads are ''Brahman'' and ''Atman''.<sup>[101]</sup> The Brahman is the ultimate reality and the
+
Two concepts that are of paramount importance in the Upanishads are ''Brahman'' and ''Atman''.<sup>[101]</sup> The Brahman is the ultimate reality and the Atman is individual self (soul).<sup>[53][54]</sup> Brahman is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.<sup>[55][56][57]</sup> It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.<sup>[53][58]</sup> Brahman is "the infinite source, fabric, core and destiny of all existence, both manifested and unmanifested, the formless infinite substratum and from which the universe has grown". Brahman in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".<sup>[59]</sup>
−
Atman is individual self (soul).<sup>[53][54]</sup> Brahman is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.<sup>[55][56][57]</sup> It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss
  −
which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.<sup>[53][58]</sup> Brahman is "the infinite source, fabric,
  −
core and destiny of all existence, both manifested and unmanifested, the
  −
formless infinite substratum and from which the universe has grown".
  −
Brahman in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies
  −
realized in the whole world".<sup>[59]</sup>
     −
The word ''Atman'' means the inner self, the soul, the immortal
+
The word ''Atman'' means the inner self, the soul, the immortal spirit in an individual, and all living beings including animals and trees.<sup>[60][54]</sup> Ātman is a central idea in all the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<sup>[61]</sup> These texts state that the inmost core of every person is not the body, nor the mind, nor the ego, but ''Atman'' – "Soul" or "Self".<sup>[62]</sup> Atman is the spiritual essence in all creatures, their real innermost essential being.<sup>[63][64]</sup> It is eternal, it is ageless. Atman is that which one is at the deepest level of one's existence.
−
spirit in an individual, and all living beings including animals and trees.<sup>[60][54]</sup> Ātman is a central idea in all the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<sup>[61]</sup> These texts state that the inmost core of every person is not the body,
  −
nor the mind, nor the ego, but ''Atman'' – "Soul" or
  −
"Self".<sup>[62]</sup> Atman is the spiritual
  −
essence in all creatures, their real innermost essential being.<sup>[63][64]</sup> It is eternal, it is ageless. Atman is that
  −
which one is at the deepest level of one's existence.
     −
''Atman'' is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they
+
''Atman'' is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with ''Atman'', while others state ''Atman'' is part of Brahman but not identical.<sup>[65][66]</sup> This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism. The Brahmasutra by Badarayana (~ 100 BCE) synthesized and unified these somewhat conflicting theories, stating that Atman and Brahman are different in some respects particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level and in the state of Self-realization, Atman and Brahman are identical, non-different.<sup>[65]</sup>
−
express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman
  −
(Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical
  −
with ''Atman'', while others state ''Atman'' is part of Brahman but not
  −
identical.<sup>[65][66]</sup> This ancient debate flowered into various dual,
  −
non-dual theories in Hinduism. The Brahmasutra by Badarayana (~ 100 BCE) synthesized and unified these somewhat
  −
conflicting theories, stating that Atman and Brahman are different in some
  −
respects particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level
  −
and in the state of Self-realization, Atman and Brahman are identical,
  −
non-different.<sup>[65]</sup>
     −
The idea put forth by the Upanishadic seers that Atman and Brahman are
+
The idea put forth by the Upanishadic seers that Atman and Brahman are One and the same is one of the greatest contributions made to the thought of the world.<sup>[116][117][118][119]</sup>
−
One and the same is one of the greatest contributions made to the thought of
  −
the world.<sup>[116][117][118][119]</sup>
      
'''Illusion'''
 
'''Illusion'''
Line 505: Line 306:  
''Main article: Maya (illusion)''
 
''Main article: Maya (illusion)''
   −
Two different types of the non-dual Brahman-Atman are presented in the Upanishads,
+
Two different types of the non-dual Brahman-Atman are presented in the Upanishads, according to Mahadevan.<sup>[120]</sup> The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is the all inclusive ground of the universe and another in which empirical, changing universe is a form of ''Maya'', often translated as "illusion".
−
according to Mahadevan.<sup>[120]</sup> The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is
  −
the all inclusive ground of the universe and another in which empirical,
  −
changing universe is a form of ''Maya'', often translated as
  −
"illusion".
     −
The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an
+
The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).<sup>[67]</sup> The former manifests itself as Ātman (Soul, Self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of ''Atman'' as "true knowledge" (''Vidya''), and the knowledge of ''Maya'' as "not true knowledge" (''Avidya'', Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).<sup>[68]</sup>
−
interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).<sup>[67]</sup> The former manifests itself as Ātman (Soul, Self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of ''Atman'' as "true
  −
knowledge" (''Vidya''), and the knowledge of ''Maya'' as "not
  −
true knowledge" (''Avidya'', Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true
  −
knowledge).<sup>[68]</sup>
     −
Hendrick Vroom explains, "the term ''Maya'' [in the Upanishads]
+
Hendrick Vroom explains, "the term ''Maya'' [in the Upanishads] has been translated as 'illusion,' but then it does not concern normal illusion. Here 'illusion' does not mean that the world is not real and simply a figment of the human imagination. ''Maya'' means that the world is not as it seems; the world that one experiences is misleading as far as its true nature is concerned."<sup>[69]</sup> According to Wendy Doniger, "to say that the universe is an illusion (māyā) is not to say that it is unreal; it is to say, instead, that it is not what it seems to be, that it is something constantly being made. Māyā not only deceives people about the things they think they know; more basically, it limits their knowledge."<sup>[70]</sup>
−
has been translated as 'illusion,' but then it does not concern normal
  −
illusion. Here 'illusion' does not mean that the world is not real and simply a
  −
figment of the human imagination. ''Maya'' means that the world is not as it
  −
seems; the world that one experiences is misleading as far as its true nature
  −
is concerned."<sup>[69]</sup> According to Wendy Doniger, "to say that the universe is an illusion
  −
(māyā) is not to say that it is unreal; it is to say, instead, that it is not
  −
what it seems to be, that it is something constantly being made. Māyā not only
  −
deceives people about the things they think they know; more basically, it
  −
limits their knowledge."<sup>[70]</sup>
     −
In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it
+
In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.<sup>[71][72]</sup> ''Maya'', or "illusion", is an important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating Self-knowledge, it is ''Maya'' which obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.<sup>[73][74]</sup>
−
co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.<sup>[71][72]</sup> ''Maya'', or "illusion", is an
  −
important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human
  −
pursuit of blissful and liberating Self-knowledge, it is ''Maya'' which
  −
obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.<sup>[73][74]</sup>
      
'''Schools of Vedanta'''
 
'''Schools of Vedanta'''
Line 538: Line 318:  
''Main article: Vedanta''
 
''Main article: Vedanta''
   −
The Upanishads form one of the three main sources for all schools of
+
The Upanishads form one of the three main sources for all schools of Vedanta, together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras.<sup>[129]</sup> Due to the wide variety of philosophical teachings contained in the Upanishads, various interpretations could be grounded on the Upanishads. The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.<sup>[130]</sup> The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:<sup>[131]</sup>
−
Vedanta, together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras.<sup>[129]</sup> Due to the wide variety of philosophical
+
*According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.<sup>[131]</sup>
−
teachings contained in the Upanishads, various interpretations could be
+
*According to Vishishtadvaita the jīvātman is a part      of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
−
grounded on the Upanishads. The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions
+
*According to Dvaita, all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal and      mutually separate entities.
−
about the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.<sup>[130]</sup> The schools of Vedanta are named after the
+
Other schools of Vedanta include Nimbarka's ''Dvaitadvaita'', Vallabha's ''Suddhadvaita'' and Chaitanya's ''Acintya Bhedabheda''.<sup>[132]</sup> The philosopher Adi Sankara has provided commentaries on 11 mukhya Upanishads.<sup>[133]</sup>
−
relation they see between atman and Brahman:<sup>[131]</sup>
  −
* According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.<sup>[131]</sup>  
  −
* According to Vishishtadvaita the jīvātman is a part      of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.  
  −
* According to Dvaita, all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal and      mutually separate entities.
  −
Other schools of Vedanta include Nimbarka's ''Dvaitadvaita'',
  −
Vallabha's ''Suddhadvaita'' and Chaitanya's ''Acintya Bhedabheda''.<sup>[132]</sup> The philosopher Adi Sankara has provided commentaries on 11 mukhya Upanishads.<sup>[133]</sup>
      
'''Advaita Vedanta'''
 
'''Advaita Vedanta'''
   −
Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought.<sup>[134]</sup> It deals with the non-dual nature of Brahman and Atman. Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the ''Vedanta''
+
Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought.<sup>[134]</sup> It deals with the non-dual nature of Brahman and Atman. Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the ''Vedanta'' school of Hindu philosophy.<sup>[134]</sup> Gaudapada was the first person to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the conflicting statements of the Upanishads.<sup>[135]</sup> Gaudapada's Advaita ideas were further developed by Shankara.<sup>[136][137]</sup> King states that Gaudapada's main work, Māṇḍukya Kārikā, is infused with philosophical terminology of Buddhism, and uses Buddhist arguments and analogies.<sup>[138]</sup> King also suggests that there are clear differences between Shankara's writings and the ''Brahmasutra'',<sup>[136][137]</sup> and many ideas of Shankara are at odds with those in the Upanishads.<sup>[139]</sup> Radhakrishnan, on the other hand, suggests that Shankara's views of Advaita were straightforward developments of the Upanishads and the ''Brahmasutra'',<sup>[140]</sup> and many ideas of Shankara derive from the Upanishads.<sup>[75]</sup>
−
school of Hindu philosophy.<sup>[134]</sup> Gaudapada was the first person to expound the
  −
basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the conflicting
  −
statements of the Upanishads.<sup>[135]</sup> Gaudapada's Advaita ideas were further
  −
developed by Shankara.<sup>[136][137]</sup> King states that Gaudapada's main work,
  −
Māṇḍukya Kārikā, is infused with philosophical terminology of Buddhism, and
  −
uses Buddhist arguments and analogies.<sup>[138]</sup> King also suggests that there are clear
  −
differences between Shankara's writings and the ''Brahmasutra'',<sup>[136][137]</sup> and many ideas of Shankara are at odds with
  −
those in the Upanishads.<sup>[139]</sup> Radhakrishnan, on the other hand, suggests that
  −
Shankara's views of Advaita were straightforward developments of the Upanishads
  −
and the ''Brahmasutra'',<sup>[140]</sup> and many ideas of Shankara derive from the
  −
Upanishads.<sup>[75]</sup>
     −
Shankara in his discussions of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy referred
+
Shankara in his discussions of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy referred to the early Upanishads to explain the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self".<sup>[76][77][78]</sup>
−
to the early Upanishads to explain the key difference between Hinduism and
  −
Buddhism, stating that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists",
  −
while Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self".<sup>[76][77][78]</sup>
     −
The Upanishads contain four sentences, the Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings), which were used by Shankara to establish the identity
+
The Upanishads contain four sentences, the Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings), which were used by Shankara to establish the identity of Atman and Brahman as scriptural truth:
−
of Atman and Brahman as scriptural truth:
+
*"Prajñānam brahma" -      "Consciousness is Brahman" (Aitareya Upanishad)<sup>[145]</sup>
−
* "Prajñānam brahma" -      "Consciousness is Brahman" (Aitareya Upanishad)<sup>[145]</sup>
+
*"Aham brahmāsmi" - "I am Brahman" (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad)<sup>[146]</sup>
−
* "Aham brahmāsmi" - "I am Brahman" (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad)<sup>[146]</sup>
+
*"Tat tvam asi" - "That Thou      art" (Chandogya Upanishad)<sup>[147]</sup>
−
* "Tat tvam asi" - "That Thou      art" (Chandogya Upanishad)<sup>[147]</sup>
+
*"Ayamātmā brahma" - "This Atman is Brahman" (Mandukya Upanishad)<sup>[148]</sup>
−
* "Ayamātmā brahma" - "This Atman is Brahman" (Mandukya Upanishad)<sup>[148]</sup>
+
Although there are a wide variety of philosophical positions propounded in the Upanishads, commentators since Adi Shankara have usually followed him in seeing idealist monism as the dominant force.<sup>[149][note 9]</sup>
−
Although there are a wide variety of philosophical positions propounded
  −
in the Upanishads, commentators since Adi Shankara have usually followed him in seeing idealist monism as the dominant force.<sup>[149][note 9]</sup>
      
'''Dvaita'''
 
'''Dvaita'''
   −
The Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya.<sup>[150]</sup> Dvaita is regarded as the best philosophic
+
The Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya.<sup>[150]</sup> Dvaita is regarded as the best philosophic exposition of theism.<sup>[151]</sup> Madhva, much like Adi Shankara claims for Advaita, states that his theistic Dvaita Vedanta is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
−
exposition of theism.<sup>[151]</sup> Madhva, much like Adi Shankara claims for
  −
Advaita, states that his theistic Dvaita Vedanta is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
      
'''Vishishtadvaita'''
 
'''Vishishtadvaita'''
   −
The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by
+
The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.<sup>[153]</sup> Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.<sup>[151]</sup> Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
−
Ramanuja. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.<sup>[153]</sup> Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy
  −
bridging the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta.<sup>[151]</sup> Ramanuja, just as Madhva claims for Dvaita
  −
sub-school, states that Vishishtadvaita is grounded in the Upanishads.<sup>[79]</sup>
      
'''References'''
 
'''References'''
   −
43.     ↑ ''Ayyangar, TRS (1953). Saiva Upanisads. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint''
+
43.     ↑ ''Ayyangar, TRS (1953). Saiva Upanisads. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint'' 2007). pp. 194–196. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0895819819</nowiki>.  
−
2007). pp. 194–196. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0895819819</nowiki>.'' ''
     −
47.     ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 56.
+
47.     ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 56.
   −
48.     ↑ Ranade 1926, p. 61.
+
48.     ↑ Ranade 1926, p. 61.
   −
49.     ↑ Joshi 1994, pp. 90–92.
+
49.     ↑ Joshi 1994, pp. 90–92.
   −
51.     ↑ Lal 1992, p. 4090.
+
51.     ↑ Lal 1992, p. 4090.
   −
53.     ↑ Singh 2002, pp. 3–4.
+
53.     ↑ Singh 2002, pp. 3–4.
   −
67.     1 2 The Yoga Upanishads TR Srinivasa Ayyangar (Translator),
+
67.     1 2 The Yoga Upanishads TR Srinivasa Ayyangar (Translator), SS Sastri (Editor), Adyar Library
−
SS Sastri (Editor), Adyar Library
     −
68.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Śākta Upaniṣads, with the commentary of Śrī
+
68.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Śākta Upaniṣads, with the commentary of Śrī Upaniṣad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 7475481
−
Upaniṣad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 7475481
     −
69.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Vaishnava-upanishads: with the commentary of Sri
+
69.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Vaishnava-upanishads: with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-brahma-yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 83901261
−
Upanishad-brahma-yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 83901261
     −
70.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Śaiva-Upanishads with the commentary of Sri
+
70.     ↑ AM Sastri, The Śaiva-Upanishads with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 863321204
−
Upanishad-Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library, OCLC 863321204
     −
83.     ↑ PV Kane, Samanya Dharma, History of Dharmasastra,
+
83.     ↑ PV Kane, Samanya Dharma, History of Dharmasastra, Vol. 2, Part 1, page 5
−
Vol. 2, Part 1, page 5
     −
86.     1 2 3 4 Mahadevan 1956, p. 57.
+
86.     1 2 3 4 Mahadevan 1956, p. 57.
   −
97.     ↑ RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology &
+
97.     ↑ RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42
−
Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42
     −
99.     1 2 3 Jayatilleke 1963, p. 32.
+
99.     1 2 3 Jayatilleke 1963, p. 32.
   −
100.  ↑ Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 36-39.
+
100.  ↑ Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 36-39.
   −
101.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 59.
+
101.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 59.
   −
104.  ↑ PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, <nowiki>ISBN 978-1406732627</nowiki>, page 426 and Conclusion
+
104.  ↑ PT Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, <nowiki>ISBN 978-1406732627</nowiki>, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
−
chapter part XII
     −
110.  ↑ PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of
+
110.  ↑ PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0887061394</nowiki>, pages 35-36
−
New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0887061394</nowiki>, pages 35-36
     −
120.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 62.
+
120.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 62.
   −
121.  ↑ Paul Deussen, ''The Philosophy of the Upanishads'', p. 161, at
+
121.  ↑ Paul Deussen, ''The Philosophy of the Upanishads'', p. 161, at Google Books, pages 161, 240-254
−
Google Books, pages 161, 240-254
     −
122.  ↑ Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), A Comparative History of World Philosophy:
+
122.  ↑ Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0791436844</nowiki>, page 376
−
From the Upanishads to Kant, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0791436844</nowiki>, page 376
      
123.  ↑ H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0802840974</nowiki>, page 57
 
123.  ↑ H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0802840974</nowiki>, page 57
   −
124.  ↑ Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities,
+
124.  ↑ Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0226618555</nowiki>, page 119
−
University of Chicago Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0226618555</nowiki>, page 119
     −
125.  ↑ Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and
+
125.  ↑ Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics, Routledge, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0415245227</nowiki>, pages 47-48
−
Ancient Indian Metaphysics, Routledge, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0415245227</nowiki>, pages 47-48
      
126.  ↑ Teun Goudriaan (2008), Maya: Divine And Human, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8120823891</nowiki>, pages 1-17
 
126.  ↑ Teun Goudriaan (2008), Maya: Divine And Human, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8120823891</nowiki>, pages 1-17
   −
127.  ↑ KN Aiyar (Translator, 1914), Sarvasara Upanishad, in Thirty Minor
+
127.  ↑ KN Aiyar (Translator, 1914), Sarvasara Upanishad, in Thirty Minor Upanishads, page 17, OCLC 6347863
−
Upanishads, page 17, OCLC 6347863
     −
128.  ↑ Adi Shankara, ''Commentary
+
128.  ↑ Adi Shankara, ''Commentary'' on Taittiriya Upanishad'' at Google Books, SS Sastri (Translator), Harvard University'' Archives, pages 191-198
−
on Taittiriya Upanishad'' at Google Books, SS Sastri (Translator), Harvard University
  −
Archives, pages 191-198
     −
129.  ↑ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 272.
+
129.  ↑ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 272.
   −
130.  ↑ Raju 1992, p. 176-177.
+
130.  ↑ Raju 1992, p. 176-177.
   −
131.  1 2 Raju 1992, p. 177.
+
131.  1 2 Raju 1992, p. 177.
   −
132.  ↑ Ranade 1926, pp. 179–182.
+
132.  ↑ Ranade 1926, pp. 179–182.
   −
133.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 63.
+
133.  ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 63.
    
134.  1 2 Encyclopædia Britannica.
 
134.  1 2 Encyclopædia Britannica.
   −
145.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, p. 669.
+
145.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, p. 669.
   −
146.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 725–727.
+
146.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 725–727.
   −
147.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 747–750.
+
147.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 747–750.
   −
148.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 697–701.
+
148.  ↑ Panikkar 2001, pp. 697–701.
    
149.  1 2 Olivelle 1998.
 
149.  1 2 Olivelle 1998.
   −
150.  ↑ Raghavendrachar 1956, p. 322.
+
150.  ↑ Raghavendrachar 1956, p. 322.
   −
151.  1 2 Chari 1956, p. 305.
+
151.  1 2 Chari 1956, p. 305.
   −
152.  1 2 Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting
+
152.  1 2 Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy, Vol. 20, No. 2, pages 215-224, doi:10.1080/09552367.2010.484955
−
Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy, Vol. 20, No. 2, pages 215-224, doi:10.1080/09552367.2010.484955
     −
153.  ↑ Klostermaier 2007, pp. 361–363.
+
153.  ↑ Klostermaier 2007, pp. 361–363.
   −
154.  1 2 Chousalkar, pp. 130-134.
+
154.  1 2 Chousalkar, pp. 130-134.
   −
155.  1 2 Wadia 1956, p. 64-65.
+
155.  1 2 Wadia 1956, p. 64-65.
   −
156.  ↑ Collins 2000, pp. 197–198.
+
156.  ↑ Collins 2000, pp. 197–198.
    
157.  ↑ Urwick 1920.
 
157.  ↑ Urwick 1920.
   −
158.  ↑ Keith 2007, pp. 602-603.
+
158.  ↑ Keith 2007, pp. 602-603.
   −
159.  1 2 WD Strappini, ''The Upanishads'', p. 258, at Google Books, The Month and Catholic Review, Vol. 23, Issue
+
159.  1 2 WD Strappini, ''The Upanishads'', p. 258, at Google Books, The Month and Catholic Review, Vol. 23, Issue 42
−
42
     −
160.  ↑ RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology &
+
160.  ↑ RC Mishra (2013), Moksha and the Hindu Worldview, Psychology & Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42; Chousalkar, Ashok (1986), Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma, pages 130-134
−
Developing Societies, Vol. 25, No. 1, pages 21-42; Chousalkar, Ashok (1986),
  −
Social and Political Implications of Concepts Of Justice And Dharma, pages
  −
130-134 
      
172.  ↑ Sadhale 1987.
 
172.  ↑ Sadhale 1987.
   −
173.  ↑ ''Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen
+
173.  ↑ ''Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen'' Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press  
−
Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press'' 
      
174.  ↑ Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997.
 
174.  ↑ Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997.
   −
175.  ↑ ''Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli (1953), The Principal Upanishads, New Delhi:
+
175.  ↑ ''Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli (1953), The Principal Upanishads, New Delhi:'' HarperCollins Publishers (1994 Reprint), <nowiki>ISBN 81-7223-124-5</nowiki>  
−
HarperCollins Publishers (1994 Reprint), <nowiki>ISBN 81-7223-124-5</nowiki>'' 
      
176.  ↑ Olivelle 1992.
 
176.  ↑ Olivelle 1992.
   −
177.  ↑ Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 395.
+
177.  ↑ Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 395.
   −
178.  ↑ Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 397.
+
178.  ↑ Schopenhauer & Payne 2000, p. 397.
   −
179.  1 2 Singh 1999, p. 456-461.
+
179.  1 2 Singh 1999, p. 456-461.
   −
180.  ↑ Versluis 1993, pp. 69, 76, 95. 106–110.
+
180.  ↑ Versluis 1993, pp. 69, 76, 95. 106–110.
    
181.  ↑ Eliot 1963.
 
181.  ↑ Eliot 1963.
   −
182.  ↑ Schrödinger 1992, p. 129.
+
182.  ↑ Schrödinger 1992, p. 129.
   −
183.  ↑ Easwaran 2007, p. 9.
+
183.  ↑ Easwaran 2007, p. 9.
    
184.  ↑ Juan Mascaró, The Upanishads, Penguin Classics, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0140441635</nowiki>, page 7, 146, cover
 
184.  ↑ Juan Mascaró, The Upanishads, Penguin Classics, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0140441635</nowiki>, page 7, 146, cover
   −
185.  1 2 Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads University
+
185.  1 2 Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads University of Kiel, T&T Clark, pages 150-179
−
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*''Coningham (2013), "The earliest Buddhist shrine: excavating      the birthplace of the Buddha, Lumbini (Nepal)", Antiquity, '''87'''      (338): 1104–1123''  
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*''Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000), A history of the Dvaita school      of Vedānta and its literature: from the earliest beginnings to our own      times, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-1575-9</nowiki>''  
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*''Sri Aurbindo Kapali Sastr Institute of Vedic Culture, SAKSIVC: Vedic Literature: Upanishads: 108 Upanishads:, www.vedah.com, retrieved 10 August 2010''  
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*Isha
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* Isha
+
*Kena
−
* Kena
+
*Katha
−
* Katha  
+
*Prashna
−
* Prashna  
+
*Mundaka
−
* Mundaka  
+
*Mandukya
−
* Mandukya  
+
*Taittiriya
−
* Taittiriya  
+
*Aitareya
−
* Aitareya  
+
*Chandogya
−
* Chandogya  
+
*Brihadaranyaka
−
* Brihadaranyaka  
+
*Brahma
−
* Brahma
+
*Kaivalya
−
* Kaivalya
+
*Jabala
−
* Jabala  
+
*Shvetashvatara
−
* Shvetashvatara  
+
*Hamsa
−
* Hamsa
+
*Aruneya
−
* Aruneya
+
*Garbha
−
* Garbha
+
*Narayana
−
* Narayana
+
*Paramahamsa
−
* Paramahamsa
+
*Amritabindu
−
* Amritabindu  
+
*Amritanada
−
* Amritanada
+
*Atharvashiras
−
* Atharvashiras
+
*Atharvashikha
−
* Atharvashikha
+
*Maitrayaniya
−
* Maitrayaniya
+
*Kaushitaki
−
* Kaushitaki
+
*Brihajjabala
−
* Brihajjabala
+
*Nrisimha Tapaniya
−
* Nrisimha Tapaniya
+
*Kalagni Rudra
−
* Kalagni Rudra
+
*Maitreya
−
* Maitreya
+
*Subala
−
* Subala  
+
*Kshurika
−
* Kshurika
+
*Mantrika
−
* Mantrika
+
*Sarvasara
−
* Sarvasara
+
*Niralamba
−
* Niralamba
+
*Shukarahasya
−
* Shukarahasya
+
*Vajrasuchi
−
* Vajrasuchi
+
*Tejobindu
−
* Tejobindu
+
*Nadabindu
−
* Nadabindu
+
*Dhyanabindu
−
* Dhyanabindu
+
*Brahmavidya
−
* Brahmavidya  
+
*Yogatattva
−
* Yogatattva
+
*Atmabodha
−
* Atmabodha
+
*Naradaparivrajaka
−
* Naradaparivrajaka
+
*Trishikhi-brahmana
−
* Trishikhi-brahmana
+
*Sita
−
* Sita
+
*Yogachudamani
−
* Yogachudamani
+
*Nirvana
−
* Nirvana
+
*Mandala-brahmana
−
* Mandala-brahmana
+
*Dakshinamurti
−
* Dakshinamurti
+
*Sharabha
−
* Sharabha  
+
*Skanda
−
* Skanda
+
*Mahanarayana
−
* Mahanarayana
+
*Advayataraka
−
* Advayataraka
+
*Rama Rahasya
−
* Rama Rahasya
+
*Ramatapaniya
−
* Ramatapaniya
+
*Vasudeva
−
* Vasudeva
+
*Mudgala
−
* Mudgala
+
*Shandilya
−
* Shandilya
+
*Paingala
−
* Paingala
+
*Bhikshuka
−
* Bhikshuka  
+
*Maha
−
* Maha
+
*Sariraka
−
* Sariraka
+
*Yogashikha
−
* Yogashikha
+
*Turiyatita
−
* Turiyatita
+
*Sannyasa
−
* Sannyasa
+
*Paramahamsaparivrajaka
−
* Paramahamsaparivrajaka
+
*Akshamalika
−
* Akshamalika
+
*Avyakta
−
* Avyakta
+
*Ekakshara
−
* Ekakshara
+
*Annapurna
−
* Annapurna  
+
*Surya
−
* Surya
+
*Akshi
−
* Akshi
+
*Adhyatma
−
* Adhyatma
+
*Kundika
−
* Kundika
+
*Savitri
−
* Savitri
+
*Atma
−
* Atma
+
*Pashupatabrahma
−
* Pashupatabrahma
+
*Parabrahma
−
* Parabrahma
+
*Avadhuta
−
* Avadhuta
+
*Tripuratapini
−
* Tripuratapini  
+
*Devi
−
* Devi
+
*Tripura
−
* Tripura
+
*Kathashruti
−
* Kathashruti
+
*Bhavana
−
* Bhavana
+
*Rudrahridaya
−
* Rudrahridaya
+
*Yoga-Kundalini
−
* Yoga-Kundalini
+
*Bhasma
−
* Bhasma
+
*Rudraksha
−
* Rudraksha
+
*Ganapati
−
* Ganapati
+
*Darshana
−
* Darshana  
+
*Tarasara
−
* Tarasara
+
*Mahavakya
−
* Mahavakya
+
*Pancabrahma
−
* Pancabrahma
+
*Pranagnihotra
−
* Pranagnihotra
+
*Gopala-Tapani
−
* Gopala-Tapani
+
*Krishna
−
* Krishna
+
*Yajnavalkya
−
* Yajnavalkya
+
*Varaha
−
* Varaha
+
*Shatyayaniya
−
* Shatyayaniya
+
*Hayagriva
−
* Hayagriva  
+
*Dattatreya
−
* Dattatreya
+
*Garuda
−
* Garuda
+
*Kali-Santarana
−
* Kali-Santarana
+
*Jabali
−
* Jabali
+
*Saubhagyalakshmi
−
* Saubhagyalakshmi
+
*Sarasvati-rahasya
−
* Sarasvati-rahasya
+
*Bahvricha
−
* Bahvricha
+
*Muktikā
−
* Muktikā    
   
|}
 
|}
−
   
==References==
 
==References==
 
<references />
 
<references />
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  −
  −
[[Category:Upanishads|*]]
  −
[[Category:Hindu texts]]
  −
[[Category:Vedas]]
  −
[[Category:Vedanta]]
 
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