3,561
edits
Changes
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
10 pages of section 1, added
SECTION I PATAKA, PRAYAŚCITTA AND KARMAVIPAKA (Sins, expiations and the residual consequences of sins).
CHAPTER I
The Article on sin in Hasting's Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethios (vo! 11) will clearly show how the idea of sin varies from religion to religion, from age to age and from country to country. We are concerned here with the growth and development of the doctrine of sin in India from Vedic times to the medieval digests and commentaries on Dharmasastra
Sin (PATAKA) is a word that belongs to the terminology of religion rather than to that of Ethics 1 It is very difficult to define sin. In a general way it may be said that it is an act which is regarded as a wilful rebellion against or disobedience of some law supposed to be laid down by God or Revelation; it is opposition to the will of God manifested in an authoritative work or at least failure to abide by the regulations contained therein.
1 In these days many people, both in the East and the West, ques. tion the very existence of sin As Barbour puts it in his 'Sin and the new Paychology' (p 19) "The feeling & garding wide acceptance that there is no such thing as 811 in the Christian Beqse. Evil may encompass & man's life and bring disaster to his personality, but it is not so it is psychic evil that can be explained by psychic causes and perhaps cured by psychological therapy Many say nothing is right and nothing is wrong Every thing is the result of complexes' It has resulted in an easy tolerance of an Sir Oliver Lodge in his article on Christian Doctrine in the Hibbert Journal for 1903-4 at p +66 says 'The lagher man of today is not worrying about bus suos at all, still less about their punishments His mission, if he is good for anything, is to be up and doing and in so far as he acts wrongly or unwisely he expects to suffer' The followers of Carvāks who was the prince of Atheists in ancient India used to say 'man should live among pleasures as long as life lasts, he should feed himself sumptuously (lit, should drink ghee) even by borrowing money from others There is no coming again to the world after the body is reduced to asbes by çremation!
History of Dharmaśāstra
[Vol The Rgveda is full of fervent and heart-felt expressions of the sense of sin and betrays intense desire on the part of the sages of old to be free from it The idea of sin in the Raveds is bound up with the conception of rta. The conception of rta cannot be discussed here in detail But & brief statement is absolutely necessary in order to be able to convey what the Vedic doctrine of sin was
Rta had a threefold aspect it means 'the course of nature or the regular and general order in the cosmos'; with reference to sacrifioe it means 'the correct and ordered way of the cult of the Gods', and thirdly, it also means the 'moral conduct of man'. A few passages to illustrate these three aspects of rta may be cited here Rg. IV 23 8-10 are 3 three verses in which the word rta occurs no less than twelve times and which broathe the all-pervading influence of rta throughout the universe 'Plontiful waters (or riches or gifts) belong to rta, the thought (or laudation) of rta destroys crooked acts (sins), the brilliant and rousing hymn of praise to rta pierces the benumbed ears of man The props of rta are firm, its (physical) manifestations are many and lovely for the sake of the body (1 o man) Through rta they (people) desire food The cows (sun's rays) entered rta by rta He who wins over rta soquires it For the sake of rta (heaven) and earth are wide and deep, the two highest cows (1 o Heaven and Earth) yield milk (desires or towards) tor the sake of rta' Some other passages aro. "The Sindhus (rivers) follow the rta of Varuda' (rtam sındhavo Varunasys yanti, Rg. II 28 4), similarly Rg I 105 12 (rtamarganti sindhavah), The wheel of rta (i e the year) revolves round the
2. For the conception of rta and the idea of sun in the Rgveda the following works may be consulted 'The religion of the Veda' by M. Bloomfield (pp 12, 125). Religion and philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads' by Prol A, B Keith (pp. 35, 83-85 &c.). "The Vedic idea of sia" by Dr. Henry Lefever (1935) One regrets to observe that Bloomfield's work is marred here and there by a certain levity of thought and expression out of hceptog with the seriousness of the subject
|| तस्य हि शरुध सन्ति पूर्वीतस्य धीति जिनानि इन्ति। मनस्य श्लैाको पधिरा ततर्द फण मधान शुचमान आपोः । तस्य हा धरुणानि सन्ति पुरूाण घमा पापे पपूर्षि। मतेन वीर्षमपणन्त पक्ष मतेने गावे असमाविवेश ॥ अतं येमान ऋतमिहनतष शास्त्रपा
weg har yeft ge mit war U Can IV 23 8-10 These are rather obscure verses The Nurulta X 41 understands rta to mean water and explains X 23-8 as 'FIEY IT a traer a ser f ra w
तृष्णा । पधिर पञ्चमेच । कण बोधयन् दीप्यमानये आप अपनस्य मनुष्यस्य उपोतिषी मा उदकरय पा ।।।
Meamng of ra sky with twelve spokes (dvādaśāram ... varvarti cakram pari dyam-tasya, Rg. I 164 11 ), 'the dawr, the daughter of heaven, correctly follows the path of rta ... ...' ('rtasya panthanam-anveti sādhu', Rg I 124 3); the young woman (Ugas) does not destroy (or come in the way of) the light of sta (Rg I 123 9 ); the gun is the bright and lovely face of rta (Rg VI. 51. 1. 'rtasya suci darbatam-anikam); the path of Eta became united with the rays' (Rg. I 136 2); when exhilarated by drinking this (Soma) Indra released for the sake of rta the concealed host of cows' (Rg. I 121 4, probably a reference to drought and subsequent rainfall).
Many of the principal gods of the Vedic pantheon are described as the guardians, promoters or charioteers of fta, Mitra and Varupa rule over all the world by rta (Rg V. 637, rtens visvam bhuvanam vi rajathah); Matra and Varuna, the protectors of rta, occupy a chariot (R& V. 63 1), Mitra, Varuna, and Aryaman are said to be charioteers of rta (yüyamrtasya rathyah, VII 66 12); they and Aditi and Bhaga are protectors of rta (Rg. VI 51 3) Agni is called the charioteer of [ta' (rathi rtasya, Rg. III. 28), the proteclor of ýta, in Rg. 1.1 8,1 10,2, X. 8.5, X 118.7 and rtavan (in Rg IV.2.1). Soma is styled the protector of rta (in Rg. IX, 48 4, IX 738) and is said to support sta (IX, 97.24 ytam bharat subhrtam carvindub) In Rg. VII. 66.13 the Adityas' are said to be stalan (acting according to the fixed order of nature), mlajāta (sprung from rta) and rtávedh (augmenting or rejoicing in rta) and further they are said to be fierce baters of anyta (what is opposed to rta).'
Rta is distinguished from sacrifice (yajña). It is not any particular sacrificial rite itself nor the institution of sacrifice, It stands for the ordered course of sacrifice in general In Rg. IV. 3.4. Agni is styled raat (conversant with or observing fta) and is invoked to know the rta (of the sacrifice); in several Fersos we meet with the words 'Itena stam' (e. g. in Rg IV. 3.9 rtens rtam niyatam-ila a goh', V. 15.2 ctena stam dharunam dhārayanta yaj asya sake, V. 68.4 rtam-stena sapanta conforming to or joining rta with ria', where 'ftena' appears to mean the correct course of sacrificial rites and tam the settled order in the universe. Soma is said to be the thread of rta spread on the datapartra (Rg. IX, 73.9 Itasya tantur-vitataḥ pavitra a). In
| +, मतावाना अजाता ऋताबधों घोरासो अनूतद्विष. । तैषा वैः सुम्ने सन्र्दष्टमे नरः TYR E . 1 . VII, 66.13
History of Dlarmaśāsto a
[Vol.
Rg. I 84.4 t 15 said ' Indra, drink this (soma) that is extracted
..the streams of the bright (soma) flow towards thee in the seat of rta' (i e, in the sonia sacrifice) Vide also Rg IV 113 (asmakam-atra pitaro manusya abhi pra sedur-tap-i susinah) 'in this world former men, our ancestors, approached rta eto', Rg I 71 3 (dadhannrtam dhanayannasya dhitim-adidaryo) Rg. X 67 2 (rtam samsanta rju didhyapa yajñasya dhama prathamam mananta) 'the Angirasas, declaring the rta and reflecting straightforwardly first thought of the abode of Yaña', Rg. X 371 (maho devāy. tad-itam saparyata, "offer this rte to the great God')
The concoption of rta as a moral imperative occurs in several passages Rg 1. 90 6 (
madhu vata rtayate madhu kgaranti sindhavah) 'the winds carry sweets, the rivelo do the same to him who keeps rta', RE V 12 2 'O Agni, that knowost rta, know rta alono (in me) I shall not resort to magio either by force or hy duplicity, I shall conform to rta of the reddish bull (1 e of Agni); Rg. X 87 11 'O Agoil may the evil spirt who injures rta by anrta be thrice bound in thy fetters' Yama in rejecting Yami's advances says (Rg X. 10 4) 'What indeed we never did beforo (shall we do it now?); shall we who have spoken rta (so far) now speak anta ?' (rta vadanto anriam rapema)
In two or three instances sta appears to be almost personifi. ed and invoked as a divinity. 'O Agnil for us offer sacrifice to Mitra and Varuna, to the gods and to the great (brhat) rta' (Rg I 75 5). Similarly, in Rg X, 66 4 the great mahat) rta 18 mentioned alongside of Aditi, Heaven and Earth, Indra, Vippu, the Maruts &c.
Rta and satya were distinguished in several passages of the Roveda T'or example, Rg. V. 51 2 speaks of the Visvo Dovas as 'rtadhitayah' (whose thoughts were fixed on rta) and 'satyadharmanah'(whose characteristic is truth or whose dharmas are true). In Rg. IX 113,4 rta and satya both ooour and appear to mean almost the same thing In Rg X. 1901 rta and satya are distinguished as having sprung from 'tapas'. Rta involves a wider conception and satya had originally a restrioted meaning (viz truth or static order). The word aneta, however, is the
| 5, ऋत चिकत्व अवामाच्चाद्धबृतस्य धारा अनु वृन्ध पूर्वी । गाई पात सहसा में
4444 TOU. I * V 12.2.
Meaning of ria cpposite of both rta and satya as may be seen from Rg X. 10.4, Rg VII. 49.3 (Varuna who marks the salya and anyta of people), Rg. X. 124,5 (Varuna who separates anrta by means of rla). Gradually, however, the word rta receded into the back-ground and salya took its place even in Vedic literature, though here and there (as in Tai, Up. II 1 and 1.9.1) both sta and satya are found in juxtaposition.
The sages of the Rgveda were acutely conscious of sin or guilt and pray to the gods, particularly to Varuna and the Adityas, for forgiveness and for being freed from the consequences of sin In this connection they employ numerous words such as ūgas, enas, aglia, durta, dushȚla, drugdha, canhas. A few examples of the employment of these words may be cited here. The most frequent words are ūgas and enas, both of which appear to import sin in its deepest and most ethical sense. Rg. VII 86 is a hymn to Varupa in which there are several verses that breathe a deep and heart-felt consciousness of guilt. The sage begins in verse 3 by saying that all wise men of whom he inquired told him the same thing viz. "Varuna is angry with you'. Then the sage proceeds 'O Varunal what is that great guilt (agas) (of mine) whereby you desire to injure your worshipper and a friend ? Declare that to me, then I shall quickly approach thee with an obeisance and be free from sin (enas). Cast away from us the transgressions (ch ugdha) of our father and those that we committed in our own person;...free Vasistha (from guilt) like a calf from the rope (that binds t)'. In Rg. VII, 89,5 (almost equal to Atharva-veda VI. 51.3) the sage says 'whatever transgressions (abhidroha) we who are mere men have praotised as against the divine hosts and whatever dhar mas laid down by you we may have confounded through our ignorance (or heedlessness) do not destroy us on account of that guilt (enas).' It will be noticed that in these verses the words āgas, abludi oha and ens are employed in the same verses and therefore practically mean the same thing. In Rg. II. 27.14 the sage prays 'O Aditi O Mitral O Varunal take pity on us though we may have committed some sin against you'. In Rg. II, 28 5 Varuna is implored to loosen sin (āgas) from the devotee just like a girdle. Rg. VIII, 45,34 states: 'O Indral do not kill us for one sin, for two sins or three sins or for many (agas).' In Rg II. 29.1 the Adityas are implored Coast away from me sin (āgas) as a woman who gives birth to a child in secret'. For some other passages
6. YARET BTICETTE SI T TI II. 29.1.
in which āyas or its opposite unūgus occurs, vide Rg 1162.22, I. 185 8, 11,29.5, 1V. 12.4, 1V 543, VII. 511, VII, 57 4, V. 85.7, VII, 877, VII. 93 7, X 36 12, X. 377 and 9. Āgas and enas are omployed in the same verse, Rs. 1V.12.4 'O Agpil Whatever sin (agay) we may have committed through heedlessness mako us free from it before Aditi and loosen from us our sins (enus) from all sides'.
Some more passages about enas are Rg VI 51 7 'May we not have to enjoy (1 suffer for the enas committed by another and Rg VI, 51 8 'Whatever sin be committed by me I shall removo it by obeisance', Rg VI. 743 'O Soma and Rudra! Loosen from us and cast away from us whatever sin attaches to our person'; Rg Vil 201 'Indra is our saviour even from a great sin'; vide also Rg I 189 1, 1, 287, VIL 52 2 The word 'aglia', also seems to mean sin 'Apa nah sogucad-agham (may our sins perish) is the refrain of Rg. 197.1-8. 'O gods! May your fetters and may sins (aghān) be far away from us' (II 29 5, in which verse in the first half 'āgah' occurs), X 117 6 (kevalagho blavatı kevaladi) 'one who simply eats food alone (without offering to others) reaps only sin.
Another word is amhas. The following passages may bo cited. In Re II, 28 6 Varuna is implored 'remove amlıcs (sin ) as one removes the rope from the (neck) of the calf; one has not the power even to wink without you ( your favour)'? It should be noted that in the preceding verse (II 28 5) already quoted the similo of the girdle is employed with regard to ūgas. 'May Indra take us away from anhas as persons on both sides of a Tyver) call one who is going in a boat' (Rg III, 32 14 ), 'No evil causod by the gods or by ten reaches him from any side who worships Agni with fuel, oblation or sacrifices' Rg VIII, 19, 6, 'May Aditi, the mother of the affluent Mitra and Varuna, save us from all sin' (Rg. X. 36. 3) Rg. X. 36. 2 also preys Heaven and Earth, the upholders of rta, to protect the sage from 'ambas'. Vide also Rg X 126. %.
Another important word is urgina which is often placed in opposition to sādhu or ju. The Adityas are said to 'see insido
7 yara Verigh I WENT paraqet I II, 286, compare 11 28 5 P ure PIATT A HÉTV 8 w erd
H er ETI. VIII, 196 9 f ait arat TOTEHT AT PASTU TU torer. 1 . X, 363
Rgvedic words for 'sin'
(the hearts of men) sins as well as good (thoughts and actions) 10 and it is added that everything though far-off is near to them who are kings. In Rg. II. 27. 2 the Adityas are called 'avrināh' (free from vrjina). The Sun is said to maik among men their right and sinful deeds (Rg. IV 1 17). The same words (rju martesu vrjină ca pasyan) occur in Rg VI. 51, 2 and VII. 60.2 about the Sun.
The word 'anrla' is often used in the Rgveda. It has already been shown how Varuna is said to mark the satya and anrla of men In Rg. VII 60 5 it is said 'these gods, Mitra, Aryaman and Varuna mark (or know) many sins; they flourish in the abode of rta' Rg. VII 66 13 Calling Mitra, Varuna and Aryaman haters of anrta has already been quoted (in n. 4).
The word 'durita' is sometimes used in the sense of sin In Rg I 23 22 the waters are invoked as follows:11 "O waters 1 carry away from me whatever sin may exist in me, whatever transgressions I may have been guilty of as regards my sensual appetite or whatever falsehood I may have uttered'. Here all three words 'durita, droha and anrtid' are brought together and convey almost the same idea, viz, sin or guilt against the law of the Gods. In Rg I. 185 10 Heaven and Earth are called father and mother and are invoked to save the worshipper from durta (sin) which involves blame (pātām-avadyād-duritad) 'Avadya' means 'garhya' acc. to Pān. II. 1. 101. Rg. VII, 82, 7 states 'Him neither anhas (sin) nor durita nor worry reaches from anywhere to whose sacrifice you go, O Mitra and Varuna!". In Re. X, 126, 1 'amhas' and 'durita' are brought together (na tam-amho na duritam devāso asta martyam) In Rg VIIT 67 21 the words amhati and rapas 12 seem to be employed in the sense of sin. "Duskrta' (evil deed) is used in the sense of sin in Rg. VIIT. 47. 13 and in Rg X 164, 3 Agni is implored to keep far away from the worshipper all sins 13. The word 'papa' generally14 10 sa sarwa grotta
: PAT Prefa I II 273; STT i Caraca ty ng 99 IV. 1 17. | 11 इदमापः प्रवत यत्किं च दुरितं मापे । यद्वात्मभिदुद्धोद पहा शेप उताच्चतम् ॥ ऋ I 23-22 $ (or-) means he 12 gaat uigrantiem Reai Rufa at : . VIII 67 21,
HART arî 93 IV. 21 13, चदायिदपीच्यं देवासो अस्ति दुष्कृतम् । त्रिते तद्विश्वमाप्रय आरे अस्मादधातन # VIII 47 13, ru e quale4yer T SHUT #. X, 164.3 14 Attag#: ETT P OCIX. 10 12, E: STEGT 74 H er G . IV 5-5,
[Vol. occurs in the Rg. in the sense of 'sinner' (Rg. VIII, 61, 11, X. 10 12, IV. 5. 5) or 'sinful' or 'evil' (Rg X 108 6, X, 164 5, I. 129. 11) In Rg VII. 32. 18, VII. 94 3, VIII. 19 26 'papatva occurs and appears to mean 'sinfulness' In the Brahmanas 'papam' (neuter) occurs in the sense of 'sin' as in Sat Br. XI. 2 7. 19; vide also 15 Ait Br 33.5 In the Upanisads pāpam' means 'sin' (
eg in Tai Up II 9, Chandogya IY 14, 3). Certain important modifications of the doctrine about sin and Karma were introduced in the Upanisads and the Bhagavadgita, which will be discussed later on,
In spite of the voluminous references to the oonsciousness of guilt and sin in the Rgveda and to the transgression of divine laws briefly indicated above, European scholars were not want ing who boldly affirmed that the idea of sin was altogether unknown to the Rgvedic sages. Vide S B E vol IP XXII where Mar-Muller replies 'the gradual growth of the concept of guilt is one of the most interesting lessons which certain passages of these ancient hymns can teach us
How sin arises in the individual mind has been a diffioult problem at all times16 Men are conscious of the sins they commit, though they may have no definite conolusions or theories about the origin of sin In the Re VII. 86 6 a sago" pleads with Varuna that sin is not due to a man's own power, but it is rather due to fate, to sura (intoxicants). to angor, dice or heedlessness and even dream state leads one to commit what is not right in the Kausitakı-brahmanopanigad (III 9) it is stated. 'the Lord of all makes that man performn good works whom He desires to raise to higher wor]ds
| 15 सहौवाचाजीगर्तः सौययसिस्तदै मा तात तपाति पाप कर्म मया कृतम् । ऐ मा 33 5 ( VII 17.)
16. Christianty seems to have solved it by stating that the source of actual sin is the Devil (Matthew 13 39) and by the legend of Adam's Fall (vide Romans 5. 12 'as by one man sin entered to the world and death by sun') at affirmed that there was a dose of original sin in all men in modern times many people don't accept the idea of original sın', for example, Sir Oliver Lodge says (in his article on Christian Doctrine') in Hibbert Journal for 1903-4 at p. 466 "As for original sin' or 'birth in or other notion of that Lind that sits absolutely lightly on him (the man of to-day) As a matter of fact it is non-existent, and none but a monk could have Invented it | 17, न वो दो वरुण धति सा होरा मन्यार्बभीदको आचात्तः । अस्त व्यायान्कनीषस Vi ertagaret . VII 86 6
Hot sin arises in men's minds than these and He makes that man commit bad deeds whom He wishes to drag down'.18 Here it appears to be suggested that some men are chosen by God for being saved and some are chosen for being damned. This sounds like the Calvinistic doctrine of pre-destination. In the Bhagavadgita (III, 36) Arjuna questions Srikrsns as follows: 'impelled by whom does a man commit sin as if constrained thereto by force, even though he does not desire to do so'? The angwer given is (III. 37) 'it is just and anger springing from the element (muna) of rajas (passion) that are the enemies of man in this world. In another place the Bhagavadgita (XVI. 21 ) says 'this is the three-fold door or entrance to Hell that is ruinous to the self viz. lust, anger and greed; therefore & man must shun these three.' But it must be said that this doos not go to the real root of the matter. The question is why should carnal lust, anger or greed themselves arise in the mind of man. The only answer that is indicated is in accordance with the tenets of the Sārkhya philosophy viz. that there are three gunas, sattva, rajas and tamas which combine in various proportions in different men and that it is rajoguna that is the cause of man's sinfulness In the Santiparya, chap. 163, it is stated that there are thirteen very powerful enemies of men beginning with anger (kr odha) and Kama (lust) and it is said that krodha springs from lobha (covetousness), which latter arises from ignorance (verses 7 and 11). But there is no satisfactory discussion of the origin of ignorance in that chapter. Gautama 19.2 observe 20 that 'man in this world is polluted by & vile action such as sacrificing for a man unworthy to offer & sacrifice, eating forbidden food, speaking what ought not to be spoken, neglecting what is prescribed and practising that 18 forbidden'. Yajfiavalkya III, 219 proscribes: 'by
| 18. एष व साधु कर्म कारयति त यमेन्यो लोकेम्पो एक्षिनषते एष उ एषासाधु कर्म HIS YET I A LT 34. II. 9. This is the basis of Brahmasūtra II. 1.34 and II. 3.41.
19. विविधं नरकस्येवं द्वारं नाशनमात्मनः । कामः क्रोधस्तथा लोभस्तस्मादेतत्वयं त्यजेत्॥ maçta XVI. 21 = fegua 33.6. | 40. विहितत्याननुष्ठानान्निन्दितस्य च सेवनात् । अनिग्रहाचेन्द्रियाणां नरः पतनमृति ।। या III 219, अर्वन् विहितं कर्म प्रतिषिद्धानि चाचरन् । प्रायश्चित्तीयते ये जरो THEUT
T u tfak 34 2 appears to mention the two causes of the rise of sin stated by Yaj in the first half of III 219 910 9641 कुर्मणा लिप्यते यथैतदयाज्ययाज्ञभमभक्ष्यभक्षणमबद्यचर्न शिष्टस्याक्रिया प्रतिषिद्धसेवनामति । ग. 192 शजर on जै, XII, 3 16 schoes the very words of गो. v12 शिष्टस्याकिया अतिपिसेवनामेति !,
B. D. 2
omitting to do what is ordained, by resorting to what is condemned (prohibited) and by not controlling the senses, man incurs fall (i e sin) Manu XI 44 and Santiparva 34 2 are similar verses The Mitaksară explains that matters ordained are such as performing Sandhya (morning and evening adorations) and Agnihotra and what are condemned are such actions as drinking liquor Vośvarūpa explains that patana (fall or sinfulness) in Ya) . 219 is not used in the technical sepse attached to that word by Gautama 21 4 viz 'to be a pahla means to be doprived of the right to follow the lawful occupations of twiceborn men, but it is used only in the sense that the man 80 acting (as mentioned in Ya, III, 219) becomes liable to undergo prāyascitts and that the words of Gautama (21,4) are restricted only to what are called mahāpātakas The word pälaha is derived from the causal of the root 'pat' Vide Medhatithi on Manu XI 54 'pātakaśabdah patayatiti vyutpattyä sarva-vyatikramesu valtate' and Madanapārijāta p 786 In ancient works the word palaniya (meaning the cause of patana) has been employed as in Āp Dh S. 1.7217 The Pr V (p 35) paraphrases patantyini by patakani' and derives it from the root 'paty (palatyanena at pataniyam) with the addition of the termination 'aniya' according to Pán III 3113 The word occurs also in Ya) II. 210, II, 297, Sankha quoted by Visvarūpa on Yay. II 237 (in prose) and other smrtis
The enumeration of sinful acts and the classifications of sins into sevoral degrees or grades has gone on from very anciont times in the Rg X 5 6 it is said21 the wise made (lit chiselled) seven limits, the man who goes against even one of them becomes sinful' The Nirukta (VL 27 ) explains that the seven sins indicated in this verse are theft, violating the bed (of the GNTIL), murder of a brāhmana, murder of a bhruins, drinking of liquor, continual performance of the same sinful act, telling a lie as to a sinful matter'. Rg VII. 86 6 quoted above (in n 17) makes it clear that drinking surā and playing with dice were regarded as sinfu). From the Tai. S. II 5 1, 2, V 3 12 1-2, Sat Br XIII.3 11 and other Brahmana texts it appears that the murder of a brähmana was generally regarded in early vedic times as the gravest of all sins, though in the Kathaka sambita (31. 7) it is stated that there is no sin as
21. aniq e rig TEIX 56, 44 फवय । तासामकामपि अधिगच्छकंहस्वान् भवति । स्तेय तल्पारोहणं गरिया भणपा रापानं दुतस्य कर्मण पुन पुन सेश पातके अनूतोद्यानति । निश्क vi 47,
CHAPTER I
The Article on sin in Hasting's Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethios (vo! 11) will clearly show how the idea of sin varies from religion to religion, from age to age and from country to country. We are concerned here with the growth and development of the doctrine of sin in India from Vedic times to the medieval digests and commentaries on Dharmasastra
Sin (PATAKA) is a word that belongs to the terminology of religion rather than to that of Ethics 1 It is very difficult to define sin. In a general way it may be said that it is an act which is regarded as a wilful rebellion against or disobedience of some law supposed to be laid down by God or Revelation; it is opposition to the will of God manifested in an authoritative work or at least failure to abide by the regulations contained therein.
1 In these days many people, both in the East and the West, ques. tion the very existence of sin As Barbour puts it in his 'Sin and the new Paychology' (p 19) "The feeling & garding wide acceptance that there is no such thing as 811 in the Christian Beqse. Evil may encompass & man's life and bring disaster to his personality, but it is not so it is psychic evil that can be explained by psychic causes and perhaps cured by psychological therapy Many say nothing is right and nothing is wrong Every thing is the result of complexes' It has resulted in an easy tolerance of an Sir Oliver Lodge in his article on Christian Doctrine in the Hibbert Journal for 1903-4 at p +66 says 'The lagher man of today is not worrying about bus suos at all, still less about their punishments His mission, if he is good for anything, is to be up and doing and in so far as he acts wrongly or unwisely he expects to suffer' The followers of Carvāks who was the prince of Atheists in ancient India used to say 'man should live among pleasures as long as life lasts, he should feed himself sumptuously (lit, should drink ghee) even by borrowing money from others There is no coming again to the world after the body is reduced to asbes by çremation!
History of Dharmaśāstra
[Vol The Rgveda is full of fervent and heart-felt expressions of the sense of sin and betrays intense desire on the part of the sages of old to be free from it The idea of sin in the Raveds is bound up with the conception of rta. The conception of rta cannot be discussed here in detail But & brief statement is absolutely necessary in order to be able to convey what the Vedic doctrine of sin was
Rta had a threefold aspect it means 'the course of nature or the regular and general order in the cosmos'; with reference to sacrifioe it means 'the correct and ordered way of the cult of the Gods', and thirdly, it also means the 'moral conduct of man'. A few passages to illustrate these three aspects of rta may be cited here Rg. IV 23 8-10 are 3 three verses in which the word rta occurs no less than twelve times and which broathe the all-pervading influence of rta throughout the universe 'Plontiful waters (or riches or gifts) belong to rta, the thought (or laudation) of rta destroys crooked acts (sins), the brilliant and rousing hymn of praise to rta pierces the benumbed ears of man The props of rta are firm, its (physical) manifestations are many and lovely for the sake of the body (1 o man) Through rta they (people) desire food The cows (sun's rays) entered rta by rta He who wins over rta soquires it For the sake of rta (heaven) and earth are wide and deep, the two highest cows (1 o Heaven and Earth) yield milk (desires or towards) tor the sake of rta' Some other passages aro. "The Sindhus (rivers) follow the rta of Varuda' (rtam sındhavo Varunasys yanti, Rg. II 28 4), similarly Rg I 105 12 (rtamarganti sindhavah), The wheel of rta (i e the year) revolves round the
2. For the conception of rta and the idea of sun in the Rgveda the following works may be consulted 'The religion of the Veda' by M. Bloomfield (pp 12, 125). Religion and philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads' by Prol A, B Keith (pp. 35, 83-85 &c.). "The Vedic idea of sia" by Dr. Henry Lefever (1935) One regrets to observe that Bloomfield's work is marred here and there by a certain levity of thought and expression out of hceptog with the seriousness of the subject
|| तस्य हि शरुध सन्ति पूर्वीतस्य धीति जिनानि इन्ति। मनस्य श्लैाको पधिरा ततर्द फण मधान शुचमान आपोः । तस्य हा धरुणानि सन्ति पुरूाण घमा पापे पपूर्षि। मतेन वीर्षमपणन्त पक्ष मतेने गावे असमाविवेश ॥ अतं येमान ऋतमिहनतष शास्त्रपा
weg har yeft ge mit war U Can IV 23 8-10 These are rather obscure verses The Nurulta X 41 understands rta to mean water and explains X 23-8 as 'FIEY IT a traer a ser f ra w
तृष्णा । पधिर पञ्चमेच । कण बोधयन् दीप्यमानये आप अपनस्य मनुष्यस्य उपोतिषी मा उदकरय पा ।।।
Meamng of ra sky with twelve spokes (dvādaśāram ... varvarti cakram pari dyam-tasya, Rg. I 164 11 ), 'the dawr, the daughter of heaven, correctly follows the path of rta ... ...' ('rtasya panthanam-anveti sādhu', Rg I 124 3); the young woman (Ugas) does not destroy (or come in the way of) the light of sta (Rg I 123 9 ); the gun is the bright and lovely face of rta (Rg VI. 51. 1. 'rtasya suci darbatam-anikam); the path of Eta became united with the rays' (Rg. I 136 2); when exhilarated by drinking this (Soma) Indra released for the sake of rta the concealed host of cows' (Rg. I 121 4, probably a reference to drought and subsequent rainfall).
Many of the principal gods of the Vedic pantheon are described as the guardians, promoters or charioteers of fta, Mitra and Varupa rule over all the world by rta (Rg V. 637, rtens visvam bhuvanam vi rajathah); Matra and Varuna, the protectors of rta, occupy a chariot (R& V. 63 1), Mitra, Varuna, and Aryaman are said to be charioteers of rta (yüyamrtasya rathyah, VII 66 12); they and Aditi and Bhaga are protectors of rta (Rg. VI 51 3) Agni is called the charioteer of [ta' (rathi rtasya, Rg. III. 28), the proteclor of ýta, in Rg. 1.1 8,1 10,2, X. 8.5, X 118.7 and rtavan (in Rg IV.2.1). Soma is styled the protector of rta (in Rg. IX, 48 4, IX 738) and is said to support sta (IX, 97.24 ytam bharat subhrtam carvindub) In Rg. VII. 66.13 the Adityas' are said to be stalan (acting according to the fixed order of nature), mlajāta (sprung from rta) and rtávedh (augmenting or rejoicing in rta) and further they are said to be fierce baters of anyta (what is opposed to rta).'
Rta is distinguished from sacrifice (yajña). It is not any particular sacrificial rite itself nor the institution of sacrifice, It stands for the ordered course of sacrifice in general In Rg. IV. 3.4. Agni is styled raat (conversant with or observing fta) and is invoked to know the rta (of the sacrifice); in several Fersos we meet with the words 'Itena stam' (e. g. in Rg IV. 3.9 rtens rtam niyatam-ila a goh', V. 15.2 ctena stam dharunam dhārayanta yaj asya sake, V. 68.4 rtam-stena sapanta conforming to or joining rta with ria', where 'ftena' appears to mean the correct course of sacrificial rites and tam the settled order in the universe. Soma is said to be the thread of rta spread on the datapartra (Rg. IX, 73.9 Itasya tantur-vitataḥ pavitra a). In
| +, मतावाना अजाता ऋताबधों घोरासो अनूतद्विष. । तैषा वैः सुम्ने सन्र्दष्टमे नरः TYR E . 1 . VII, 66.13
History of Dlarmaśāsto a
[Vol.
Rg. I 84.4 t 15 said ' Indra, drink this (soma) that is extracted
..the streams of the bright (soma) flow towards thee in the seat of rta' (i e, in the sonia sacrifice) Vide also Rg IV 113 (asmakam-atra pitaro manusya abhi pra sedur-tap-i susinah) 'in this world former men, our ancestors, approached rta eto', Rg I 71 3 (dadhannrtam dhanayannasya dhitim-adidaryo) Rg. X 67 2 (rtam samsanta rju didhyapa yajñasya dhama prathamam mananta) 'the Angirasas, declaring the rta and reflecting straightforwardly first thought of the abode of Yaña', Rg. X 371 (maho devāy. tad-itam saparyata, "offer this rte to the great God')
The concoption of rta as a moral imperative occurs in several passages Rg 1. 90 6 (
madhu vata rtayate madhu kgaranti sindhavah) 'the winds carry sweets, the rivelo do the same to him who keeps rta', RE V 12 2 'O Agni, that knowost rta, know rta alono (in me) I shall not resort to magio either by force or hy duplicity, I shall conform to rta of the reddish bull (1 e of Agni); Rg. X 87 11 'O Agoil may the evil spirt who injures rta by anrta be thrice bound in thy fetters' Yama in rejecting Yami's advances says (Rg X. 10 4) 'What indeed we never did beforo (shall we do it now?); shall we who have spoken rta (so far) now speak anta ?' (rta vadanto anriam rapema)
In two or three instances sta appears to be almost personifi. ed and invoked as a divinity. 'O Agnil for us offer sacrifice to Mitra and Varuna, to the gods and to the great (brhat) rta' (Rg I 75 5). Similarly, in Rg X, 66 4 the great mahat) rta 18 mentioned alongside of Aditi, Heaven and Earth, Indra, Vippu, the Maruts &c.
Rta and satya were distinguished in several passages of the Roveda T'or example, Rg. V. 51 2 speaks of the Visvo Dovas as 'rtadhitayah' (whose thoughts were fixed on rta) and 'satyadharmanah'(whose characteristic is truth or whose dharmas are true). In Rg. IX 113,4 rta and satya both ooour and appear to mean almost the same thing In Rg X. 1901 rta and satya are distinguished as having sprung from 'tapas'. Rta involves a wider conception and satya had originally a restrioted meaning (viz truth or static order). The word aneta, however, is the
| 5, ऋत चिकत्व अवामाच्चाद्धबृतस्य धारा अनु वृन्ध पूर्वी । गाई पात सहसा में
4444 TOU. I * V 12.2.
Meaning of ria cpposite of both rta and satya as may be seen from Rg X. 10.4, Rg VII. 49.3 (Varuna who marks the salya and anyta of people), Rg. X. 124,5 (Varuna who separates anrta by means of rla). Gradually, however, the word rta receded into the back-ground and salya took its place even in Vedic literature, though here and there (as in Tai, Up. II 1 and 1.9.1) both sta and satya are found in juxtaposition.
The sages of the Rgveda were acutely conscious of sin or guilt and pray to the gods, particularly to Varuna and the Adityas, for forgiveness and for being freed from the consequences of sin In this connection they employ numerous words such as ūgas, enas, aglia, durta, dushȚla, drugdha, canhas. A few examples of the employment of these words may be cited here. The most frequent words are ūgas and enas, both of which appear to import sin in its deepest and most ethical sense. Rg. VII 86 is a hymn to Varupa in which there are several verses that breathe a deep and heart-felt consciousness of guilt. The sage begins in verse 3 by saying that all wise men of whom he inquired told him the same thing viz. "Varuna is angry with you'. Then the sage proceeds 'O Varunal what is that great guilt (agas) (of mine) whereby you desire to injure your worshipper and a friend ? Declare that to me, then I shall quickly approach thee with an obeisance and be free from sin (enas). Cast away from us the transgressions (ch ugdha) of our father and those that we committed in our own person;...free Vasistha (from guilt) like a calf from the rope (that binds t)'. In Rg. VII, 89,5 (almost equal to Atharva-veda VI. 51.3) the sage says 'whatever transgressions (abhidroha) we who are mere men have praotised as against the divine hosts and whatever dhar mas laid down by you we may have confounded through our ignorance (or heedlessness) do not destroy us on account of that guilt (enas).' It will be noticed that in these verses the words āgas, abludi oha and ens are employed in the same verses and therefore practically mean the same thing. In Rg. II. 27.14 the sage prays 'O Aditi O Mitral O Varunal take pity on us though we may have committed some sin against you'. In Rg. II, 28 5 Varuna is implored to loosen sin (āgas) from the devotee just like a girdle. Rg. VIII, 45,34 states: 'O Indral do not kill us for one sin, for two sins or three sins or for many (agas).' In Rg II. 29.1 the Adityas are implored Coast away from me sin (āgas) as a woman who gives birth to a child in secret'. For some other passages
6. YARET BTICETTE SI T TI II. 29.1.
in which āyas or its opposite unūgus occurs, vide Rg 1162.22, I. 185 8, 11,29.5, 1V. 12.4, 1V 543, VII. 511, VII, 57 4, V. 85.7, VII, 877, VII. 93 7, X 36 12, X. 377 and 9. Āgas and enas are omployed in the same verse, Rs. 1V.12.4 'O Agpil Whatever sin (agay) we may have committed through heedlessness mako us free from it before Aditi and loosen from us our sins (enus) from all sides'.
Some more passages about enas are Rg VI 51 7 'May we not have to enjoy (1 suffer for the enas committed by another and Rg VI, 51 8 'Whatever sin be committed by me I shall removo it by obeisance', Rg VI. 743 'O Soma and Rudra! Loosen from us and cast away from us whatever sin attaches to our person'; Rg Vil 201 'Indra is our saviour even from a great sin'; vide also Rg I 189 1, 1, 287, VIL 52 2 The word 'aglia', also seems to mean sin 'Apa nah sogucad-agham (may our sins perish) is the refrain of Rg. 197.1-8. 'O gods! May your fetters and may sins (aghān) be far away from us' (II 29 5, in which verse in the first half 'āgah' occurs), X 117 6 (kevalagho blavatı kevaladi) 'one who simply eats food alone (without offering to others) reaps only sin.
Another word is amhas. The following passages may bo cited. In Re II, 28 6 Varuna is implored 'remove amlıcs (sin ) as one removes the rope from the (neck) of the calf; one has not the power even to wink without you ( your favour)'? It should be noted that in the preceding verse (II 28 5) already quoted the similo of the girdle is employed with regard to ūgas. 'May Indra take us away from anhas as persons on both sides of a Tyver) call one who is going in a boat' (Rg III, 32 14 ), 'No evil causod by the gods or by ten reaches him from any side who worships Agni with fuel, oblation or sacrifices' Rg VIII, 19, 6, 'May Aditi, the mother of the affluent Mitra and Varuna, save us from all sin' (Rg. X. 36. 3) Rg. X. 36. 2 also preys Heaven and Earth, the upholders of rta, to protect the sage from 'ambas'. Vide also Rg X 126. %.
Another important word is urgina which is often placed in opposition to sādhu or ju. The Adityas are said to 'see insido
7 yara Verigh I WENT paraqet I II, 286, compare 11 28 5 P ure PIATT A HÉTV 8 w erd
H er ETI. VIII, 196 9 f ait arat TOTEHT AT PASTU TU torer. 1 . X, 363
Rgvedic words for 'sin'
(the hearts of men) sins as well as good (thoughts and actions) 10 and it is added that everything though far-off is near to them who are kings. In Rg. II. 27. 2 the Adityas are called 'avrināh' (free from vrjina). The Sun is said to maik among men their right and sinful deeds (Rg. IV 1 17). The same words (rju martesu vrjină ca pasyan) occur in Rg VI. 51, 2 and VII. 60.2 about the Sun.
The word 'anrla' is often used in the Rgveda. It has already been shown how Varuna is said to mark the satya and anrla of men In Rg. VII 60 5 it is said 'these gods, Mitra, Aryaman and Varuna mark (or know) many sins; they flourish in the abode of rta' Rg. VII 66 13 Calling Mitra, Varuna and Aryaman haters of anrta has already been quoted (in n. 4).
The word 'durita' is sometimes used in the sense of sin In Rg I 23 22 the waters are invoked as follows:11 "O waters 1 carry away from me whatever sin may exist in me, whatever transgressions I may have been guilty of as regards my sensual appetite or whatever falsehood I may have uttered'. Here all three words 'durita, droha and anrtid' are brought together and convey almost the same idea, viz, sin or guilt against the law of the Gods. In Rg I. 185 10 Heaven and Earth are called father and mother and are invoked to save the worshipper from durta (sin) which involves blame (pātām-avadyād-duritad) 'Avadya' means 'garhya' acc. to Pān. II. 1. 101. Rg. VII, 82, 7 states 'Him neither anhas (sin) nor durita nor worry reaches from anywhere to whose sacrifice you go, O Mitra and Varuna!". In Re. X, 126, 1 'amhas' and 'durita' are brought together (na tam-amho na duritam devāso asta martyam) In Rg VIIT 67 21 the words amhati and rapas 12 seem to be employed in the sense of sin. "Duskrta' (evil deed) is used in the sense of sin in Rg. VIIT. 47. 13 and in Rg X 164, 3 Agni is implored to keep far away from the worshipper all sins 13. The word 'papa' generally14 10 sa sarwa grotta
: PAT Prefa I II 273; STT i Caraca ty ng 99 IV. 1 17. | 11 इदमापः प्रवत यत्किं च दुरितं मापे । यद्वात्मभिदुद्धोद पहा शेप उताच्चतम् ॥ ऋ I 23-22 $ (or-) means he 12 gaat uigrantiem Reai Rufa at : . VIII 67 21,
HART arî 93 IV. 21 13, चदायिदपीच्यं देवासो अस्ति दुष्कृतम् । त्रिते तद्विश्वमाप्रय आरे अस्मादधातन # VIII 47 13, ru e quale4yer T SHUT #. X, 164.3 14 Attag#: ETT P OCIX. 10 12, E: STEGT 74 H er G . IV 5-5,
[Vol. occurs in the Rg. in the sense of 'sinner' (Rg. VIII, 61, 11, X. 10 12, IV. 5. 5) or 'sinful' or 'evil' (Rg X 108 6, X, 164 5, I. 129. 11) In Rg VII. 32. 18, VII. 94 3, VIII. 19 26 'papatva occurs and appears to mean 'sinfulness' In the Brahmanas 'papam' (neuter) occurs in the sense of 'sin' as in Sat Br. XI. 2 7. 19; vide also 15 Ait Br 33.5 In the Upanisads pāpam' means 'sin' (
eg in Tai Up II 9, Chandogya IY 14, 3). Certain important modifications of the doctrine about sin and Karma were introduced in the Upanisads and the Bhagavadgita, which will be discussed later on,
In spite of the voluminous references to the oonsciousness of guilt and sin in the Rgveda and to the transgression of divine laws briefly indicated above, European scholars were not want ing who boldly affirmed that the idea of sin was altogether unknown to the Rgvedic sages. Vide S B E vol IP XXII where Mar-Muller replies 'the gradual growth of the concept of guilt is one of the most interesting lessons which certain passages of these ancient hymns can teach us
How sin arises in the individual mind has been a diffioult problem at all times16 Men are conscious of the sins they commit, though they may have no definite conolusions or theories about the origin of sin In the Re VII. 86 6 a sago" pleads with Varuna that sin is not due to a man's own power, but it is rather due to fate, to sura (intoxicants). to angor, dice or heedlessness and even dream state leads one to commit what is not right in the Kausitakı-brahmanopanigad (III 9) it is stated. 'the Lord of all makes that man performn good works whom He desires to raise to higher wor]ds
| 15 सहौवाचाजीगर्तः सौययसिस्तदै मा तात तपाति पाप कर्म मया कृतम् । ऐ मा 33 5 ( VII 17.)
16. Christianty seems to have solved it by stating that the source of actual sin is the Devil (Matthew 13 39) and by the legend of Adam's Fall (vide Romans 5. 12 'as by one man sin entered to the world and death by sun') at affirmed that there was a dose of original sin in all men in modern times many people don't accept the idea of original sın', for example, Sir Oliver Lodge says (in his article on Christian Doctrine') in Hibbert Journal for 1903-4 at p. 466 "As for original sin' or 'birth in or other notion of that Lind that sits absolutely lightly on him (the man of to-day) As a matter of fact it is non-existent, and none but a monk could have Invented it | 17, न वो दो वरुण धति सा होरा मन्यार्बभीदको आचात्तः । अस्त व्यायान्कनीषस Vi ertagaret . VII 86 6
Hot sin arises in men's minds than these and He makes that man commit bad deeds whom He wishes to drag down'.18 Here it appears to be suggested that some men are chosen by God for being saved and some are chosen for being damned. This sounds like the Calvinistic doctrine of pre-destination. In the Bhagavadgita (III, 36) Arjuna questions Srikrsns as follows: 'impelled by whom does a man commit sin as if constrained thereto by force, even though he does not desire to do so'? The angwer given is (III. 37) 'it is just and anger springing from the element (muna) of rajas (passion) that are the enemies of man in this world. In another place the Bhagavadgita (XVI. 21 ) says 'this is the three-fold door or entrance to Hell that is ruinous to the self viz. lust, anger and greed; therefore & man must shun these three.' But it must be said that this doos not go to the real root of the matter. The question is why should carnal lust, anger or greed themselves arise in the mind of man. The only answer that is indicated is in accordance with the tenets of the Sārkhya philosophy viz. that there are three gunas, sattva, rajas and tamas which combine in various proportions in different men and that it is rajoguna that is the cause of man's sinfulness In the Santiparya, chap. 163, it is stated that there are thirteen very powerful enemies of men beginning with anger (kr odha) and Kama (lust) and it is said that krodha springs from lobha (covetousness), which latter arises from ignorance (verses 7 and 11). But there is no satisfactory discussion of the origin of ignorance in that chapter. Gautama 19.2 observe 20 that 'man in this world is polluted by & vile action such as sacrificing for a man unworthy to offer & sacrifice, eating forbidden food, speaking what ought not to be spoken, neglecting what is prescribed and practising that 18 forbidden'. Yajfiavalkya III, 219 proscribes: 'by
| 18. एष व साधु कर्म कारयति त यमेन्यो लोकेम्पो एक्षिनषते एष उ एषासाधु कर्म HIS YET I A LT 34. II. 9. This is the basis of Brahmasūtra II. 1.34 and II. 3.41.
19. विविधं नरकस्येवं द्वारं नाशनमात्मनः । कामः क्रोधस्तथा लोभस्तस्मादेतत्वयं त्यजेत्॥ maçta XVI. 21 = fegua 33.6. | 40. विहितत्याननुष्ठानान्निन्दितस्य च सेवनात् । अनिग्रहाचेन्द्रियाणां नरः पतनमृति ।। या III 219, अर्वन् विहितं कर्म प्रतिषिद्धानि चाचरन् । प्रायश्चित्तीयते ये जरो THEUT
T u tfak 34 2 appears to mention the two causes of the rise of sin stated by Yaj in the first half of III 219 910 9641 कुर्मणा लिप्यते यथैतदयाज्ययाज्ञभमभक्ष्यभक्षणमबद्यचर्न शिष्टस्याक्रिया प्रतिषिद्धसेवनामति । ग. 192 शजर on जै, XII, 3 16 schoes the very words of गो. v12 शिष्टस्याकिया अतिपिसेवनामेति !,
B. D. 2
omitting to do what is ordained, by resorting to what is condemned (prohibited) and by not controlling the senses, man incurs fall (i e sin) Manu XI 44 and Santiparva 34 2 are similar verses The Mitaksară explains that matters ordained are such as performing Sandhya (morning and evening adorations) and Agnihotra and what are condemned are such actions as drinking liquor Vośvarūpa explains that patana (fall or sinfulness) in Ya) . 219 is not used in the technical sepse attached to that word by Gautama 21 4 viz 'to be a pahla means to be doprived of the right to follow the lawful occupations of twiceborn men, but it is used only in the sense that the man 80 acting (as mentioned in Ya, III, 219) becomes liable to undergo prāyascitts and that the words of Gautama (21,4) are restricted only to what are called mahāpātakas The word pälaha is derived from the causal of the root 'pat' Vide Medhatithi on Manu XI 54 'pātakaśabdah patayatiti vyutpattyä sarva-vyatikramesu valtate' and Madanapārijāta p 786 In ancient works the word palaniya (meaning the cause of patana) has been employed as in Āp Dh S. 1.7217 The Pr V (p 35) paraphrases patantyini by patakani' and derives it from the root 'paty (palatyanena at pataniyam) with the addition of the termination 'aniya' according to Pán III 3113 The word occurs also in Ya) II. 210, II, 297, Sankha quoted by Visvarūpa on Yay. II 237 (in prose) and other smrtis
The enumeration of sinful acts and the classifications of sins into sevoral degrees or grades has gone on from very anciont times in the Rg X 5 6 it is said21 the wise made (lit chiselled) seven limits, the man who goes against even one of them becomes sinful' The Nirukta (VL 27 ) explains that the seven sins indicated in this verse are theft, violating the bed (of the GNTIL), murder of a brāhmana, murder of a bhruins, drinking of liquor, continual performance of the same sinful act, telling a lie as to a sinful matter'. Rg VII. 86 6 quoted above (in n 17) makes it clear that drinking surā and playing with dice were regarded as sinfu). From the Tai. S. II 5 1, 2, V 3 12 1-2, Sat Br XIII.3 11 and other Brahmana texts it appears that the murder of a brähmana was generally regarded in early vedic times as the gravest of all sins, though in the Kathaka sambita (31. 7) it is stated that there is no sin as
21. aniq e rig TEIX 56, 44 फवय । तासामकामपि अधिगच्छकंहस्वान् भवति । स्तेय तल्पारोहणं गरिया भणपा रापानं दुतस्य कर्मण पुन पुन सेश पातके अनूतोद्यानति । निश्क vi 47,