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Line 33: − + − − == '''Etymology''' == − The Sanskrit term ''Upaniṣad'' (u = at, pa = foot, nishat =sitting down) − translates to "sitting at the foot/feet of", referring to the student − sitting down near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge.<sup>[9]</sup> − Shri Adi Shankara explains in his commentary on+ − the Kaṭha and − Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means ''Ātmavidyā'', that is, − "knowledge of the Self", or ''Brahmavidyā'' "knowledge of Brahma". Other − dictionary meanings include "esoteric doctrine" and "secret − doctrine". The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the − fourth verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad. − + − Radhakrishnan states, "almost all the early literature of India was − anonymous, we do not know the names of the authors of the Upanishads".<sup>[10]</sup> The various philosophical theories in the early Upanishads have been − − Line 60:
Line 50: − − === '''Chronology''' === − Scholars are uncertain about the exact centuries in which the Upanishads − were composed.<sup>[25]</sup> The chronology of the early Upanishads is − difficult to resolve and different philosophers and Indologists have given − different definitions and commentaries on the various Bharatiya sages, − − Patrick Olivelle gives the following chronology for the early − Upanishads, also called the Principal Upanishads:<sup>[25][6]</sup> − * The Brhadaranyaka and the Chandogya are the two earliest Upanishads. They are edited texts, some of whose sources are much older than others. The two texts are pre-Buddhist; they may be placed in the 7th to 6th centuries BCE, give or take a century or so.<sup>[26][7]</sup> − * The three other early prose Upanisads—Taittiriya, Aitareya, and Kausitaki come next; all are probably pre-Buddhist and can be assigned to the 6th to 5th centuries BCE. − * The Kena is the oldest of the verse Upanisads followed by probably the Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, and Mundaka. All these Upanisads were composed probably in the last few centuries BCE.<sup>[18]</sup> − * The two late prose Upanisads, the Prasna and the Mandukya, cannot be much older than the beginning of the common era.<sup>[25][6]</sup> − Stephen Phillips places the early Upanishads in the 800 to 300 BCE − range. He summarizes the current Indological opinion to be that the − Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Isha, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, and − Prasna Upanishads are all pre-Buddhist and pre-Jain, while Svetasvatara and − Mandukya overlap with the earliest Buddhist and Jain literature.<sup>[4]</sup> − − The later Upanishads numbering about 95, also called minor Upanishads, − are dated from the late 1st-millennium BCE to mid 2nd-millennium CE.<sup>[28]</sup> Gavin Flood dates many of the twenty Yoga Upanishads to be probably from the 100 BCE to 300 CE period.<sup>[29]</sup> Patrick Olivelle and other scholars date seven − of the twenty Sannyasa Upanishads to likely have been complete − sometime between the last centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE to 300 CE.<sup>[28]</sup> About half of the Sannyasa Upanishads were − likely composed in 14th- to 15th-century CE.<sup>[28]</sup> Line 770:
Line 736: − '''Notes''' − − 1. − ↑ ''Advaita Vedanta'', summarized by Shankara − (788–820), advances a non-dualistic (''a-dvaita'') interpretation of the − Upanishads."<sup>[10]</sup> − − 2. − ↑ "These Upanishadic ideas are developed into Advaita monism. − Brahman's unity comes to be taken to mean that appearances of individualities.<sup>[11]</sup> − − 3. − ↑ "The doctrine of advaita (non dualism) has is origin in the − Upanishads." − 4. − ↑ These are believed to pre-date Gautam Buddha (c. 500 BCE)<sup>[45]</sup> − − 5. − ↑ The Muktika manuscript found in colonial era Calcutta is the usual − default, but other recensions exist. − − 6. − 1 2 Some scholars list ten as principal, while most consider twelve or − thirteen as principal ''mukhya'' Upanishads.<sup>[63][64][65]</sup> − − 7. − ↑ Parmeshwaranand classifies Maitrayani with Samaveda, most scholars with − Krishna Yajurveda<sup>[60][71]</sup> − − 8. − ↑ Oliville: "In this Introduction I have avoided speaking of 'the − philosophy of the upanishads', a common feature of most introductions to their − translations. These documents were composed over several centuries and in − various regions, and it is futile to try to discover a single doctrine or − philosophy in them."<sup>[76]</sup> − − 9. − ↑ According to Collins, the breakdown of the Vedic cults is more obscured − by retrospective ideology than any other period in Indian history. It is − commonly assumed that the dominant philosophy now became an idealist monism, − the identification of atman (self) and Brahman (Spirit), and that this − mysticism was believed to provide a way to transcend rebirths on the wheel of − karma. This is far from an accurate picture of what we read in the Upanishads. − It has become traditional to view the Upanishads through the lens of Shankara's − Advaita interpretation. This imposes the philosophical revolution of about 700 − C.E. upon a very different situation 1,000 to 1,500 years earlier. Shankara − picked out monist and idealist themes from a much wider philosophical lineup.<sup>[139]</sup> − − 10. ↑ For instances of Platonic pluralism in the − early Upanishads see Randall.<sup>[156]</sup> Line 851:
Line 767: − − 10. ↑ Cornille 1992, p. 12. − − 11. ↑ Phillips 1995, p. 10. − − 12. ↑ ''Clarke, John James (1997). Oriental enlightenment. Routledge. − p. 68. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-415-13376-0</nowiki>.'' − − 13. ↑ Deussen 2010, p. 42. − − 14. ↑ Neria H. Hebbar, ''Influence of Upanishads in the West'', Boloji.com. Retrieved on: 2012-03-02. − − 15. ↑ ''Jones, Constance (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. New York: Infobase − Publishing. p. 472. <nowiki>ISBN 0816073368</nowiki>.'' − − 16. 1 2 S Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co., 1951, − pages 22, Reprinted as <nowiki>ISBN 978-8172231248</nowiki> − − 18. ↑ Ellison Findly (1999), Women and the Arahant Issue in − Early Pali Literature, Journal of Feminist Studies − in Religion, Vol. 15, No. 1, pages 57-76 − − 19. ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal − Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8120814684</nowiki>, pages 301-304 − − 20. ↑ For example, see: Kaushitaki Upanishad Robert Hume (Translator), − Oxford University Press, page 306 footnote 2 − − 21. ↑ Max Muller, ''The Upanishads'', p. PR72, at Google Books, Oxford University Press, page LXXII − − 22. ↑ Patrick Olivelle (1998), Unfaithful Transmitters, Journal of Indian − Philosophy, April 1998, Volume 26, Issue 2, pages 173-187; − Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0195124354</nowiki>, pages 583-640 − − 23. ↑ WD Whitney, The Upanishads and Their Latest Translation, The American − Journal of Philology, Vol. 7, No. 1, pages 1-26; − F Rusza (2010), The authorlessness of the philosophical sūtras, Acta − Orientalia, Volume 63, Number 4, pages 427-442 − − 24. ↑ Mark Juergensmeyer et al. (2011), Encyclopedia of Global Religion, SAGE − Publications, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0761927297</nowiki>, page 1122 − − 25. 1 2 3 Olivelle 1998, p. 12-13. − − 26. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. xxxvi. − − 27. ↑ Patrick Olivelle, ''Upanishads'', Encyclopedia Britannica − − 28. 1 2 3 4 Olivelle 1992, pp. 5, 8–9. − − 29. 1 2 Flood 1996, p. 96. − − 30. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. xxxvii. − − 31. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. xxxviii. − − 32. ↑ Olivelle 1998, p. xxxix. − − 33. ↑ Deussen 1908, pp. 35–36. − 35. ↑ Sen 1937, p. 19.+ − + − 36. ↑ Sharma 1985, pp. 3, 10–22, 145. − − 37. ↑ Geoffrey Samuel (2010), Tantric Revisionings, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8120827523</nowiki>, pages 60–61, 87–88, 351–356 − − 38. 1 2 Deussen, Bedekar & Palsule (tr.) 1997, − pp. 556-568. − − 39. ↑ Olivelle 1992, pp. x-xi, 8-11. − − − − − 41. ↑ Holdrege 1995, pp. 426. − − 42. ↑ ''Srinivasan, Doris (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes. BRILL − Academic. pp. 112–120. <nowiki>ISBN 978-9004107588</nowiki>.'' − − 43. ↑ ''Ayyangar, TRS (1953). Saiva Upanisads. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint − 2007). pp. 194–196. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0895819819</nowiki>.'' − 44. ↑ M. Fujii, On the formation and transmission of the JUB, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora 2, 1997+ − + − 45. ↑ Olivelle 1998, pp. 3–4. − − 46. ↑ King 1995, p. 52. Line 948:
Line 783: − − 50. ↑ Heehs 2002, p. 85. − − 52. ↑ Rinehart 2004, p. 17.
→The 10 Mukhya Upanishads: editing
== परिचय || Introduction ==
== परिचय || Introduction ==
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 30-31</ref><ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part19/chap6.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref>
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into Karma-Kanda, Upasana-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic section deals with various sacrifices and rituals. The Upasana-Kanda or Worship section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation. The Jnana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda; the Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda; and the Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 30-31</ref><ref name=":02">Sri Sri Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Swamiji, (2000) ''[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part19/chap6.htm Hindu Dharma (Collection of Swamiji's Speeches between 1907 to 1994)]''Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan</ref>
According to Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, these are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.<ref name=":2222">Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad, Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, Published by Kautilya Institute of National Studies, Mysore, Page 75 (Glossary)</ref>
According to Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, these are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.<ref name=":2222">Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad, Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, Published by Kautilya Institute of National Studies, Mysore, Page 75 (Glossary)</ref>
Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly and convincingly<ref><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>. The concepts of Brahman (Supreme Being, Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are the central ideas in all the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus<ref>Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd</ref>.
Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly and convincingly<ref><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>. The concepts of Brahman (Supreme Being, Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are the central ideas in all the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus<ref>Mahadevan, T. M. P (1956), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ed., History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin Ltd</ref>.
The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas which discuss philosophical issues. They speak about the identity of the Supreme Being, the Brahman, the individual Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara and ultimately the path to m''okṣa'' or ''mukti''<ref>http://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Vedas-And-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx</ref>.
The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas which discuss philosophical issues. They speak about the identity of the Supreme Being, the Brahman, the individual Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara and ultimately the path to m''okṣa'' or ''mukti''<ref>http://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Vedas-And-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx</ref>. Chronology and dating of Upanishads is not attempted in this article.
== The 10 Mukhya Upanishads ==
== Etymology ==
The Sanskrit term ''Upaniṣad'' (u = at, pa = foot, nishat =sitting down) translates to "sitting at the foot/feet of", referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge.<sup>[9]</sup>
Shri Adi Shankara explains in his commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means ''Ātmavidyā'', that is, "knowledge of the Self", or ''Brahmavidyā'' "knowledge of Brahma". The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the fourth verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad.
== Dasha Mukhya Upanishads ==
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''mukhya'') Upanishads.
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''mukhya'') Upanishads.
# Mundaka Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
# Mundaka Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
# Mandukya Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
# Mandukya Upanishad (Atharva Veda)
Many Upanishads are the final or exclusive portions of the ''Aranyakas'' or the ''Brahmanas''. For e.g., ''Brihdaranyaka'' Upanishad is considered to be the final chapter of the ''Shat''-''Patha'' ''Brahmana''.
Many Upanishads are the final or exclusive portions of the ''Aranyakas'' or the ''Brahmanas''. For e.g., ''Brihdaranyaka'' Upanishad is considered to be the final chapter of the ''Shat''-''Patha'' ''Brahmana''.
Some scholars list ten as principal, while most consider twelve or thirteen as principal ''mukhya'' Upanishads.
== '''Development''' ==
== '''Development''' ==
=== '''Authorship''' ===
=== '''Authorship''' ===
The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown.
The authorship of most Upanishads is uncertain and unknown. The various philosophical theories in the early Upanishads have been attributed to famous seers such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Balaki, Pippalada and Sanatkumara.<sup>[10][17]</sup> Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participated in the dialogues and are also credited in the early Upanishads.<sup>[11]</sup>
attributed to famous sages such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Balaki, Pippalada and Sanatkumara.<sup>[10][17]</sup> Women, such as Maitreyi and Gargi participate
in the dialogues and are also credited in the early Upanishads.<sup>[11]</sup>
There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and
There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and
in non-Sanskrit version of the texts that have survived, and differences within
in non-Sanskrit version of the texts that have survived, and differences within
each text in terms of the meter,<sup>[14]</sup> the style, the grammar and the structure.<sup>[15][16]</sup> The texts as they exist now is believed to be the work of many authors.<sup>[17]</sup>
each text in terms of the meter,<sup>[14]</sup> the style, the grammar and the structure.<sup>[15][16]</sup> The texts as they exist now is believed to be the work of many authors.<sup>[17]</sup>
=== '''Geography''' ===
=== '''Geography''' ===
* Bhagavad Gita
* Bhagavad Gita
* Hinduism
* Hinduism
'''References'''
'''References'''
9.
9.
↑ Ranade 1926, p. 205.
↑ Ranade 1926, p. 205.
17. ↑ Mahadevan 1956, pp. 59-60.
17. ↑ Mahadevan 1956, pp. 59-60.
34. ↑ Tripathy 2010, p. 84.
34. ↑ Tripathy 2010, p. 84.
40. ↑ ''Ayyangar, T. R. Srinivasa (1941). The Samanya-Vedanta Upanisads. Jain''
Publishing (Reprint 2007). <nowiki>ISBN 978-0895819833</nowiki>. OCLC 27193914.'' ''
40. ↑ ''Ayyangar, T. R. Srinivasa (1941). The Samanya-Vedanta Upanisads. Jain
Publishing (Reprint 2007). <nowiki>ISBN 978-0895819833</nowiki>. OCLC 27193914.''
43. ↑ ''Ayyangar, TRS (1953). Saiva Upanisads. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint''
2007). pp. 194–196. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0895819819</nowiki>.'' ''
47. ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 56.
47. ↑ Mahadevan 1956, p. 56.
49. ↑ Joshi 1994, pp. 90–92.
49. ↑ Joshi 1994, pp. 90–92.
51. ↑ Lal 1992, p. 4090.
51. ↑ Lal 1992, p. 4090.
53. ↑ Singh 2002, pp. 3–4.
53. ↑ Singh 2002, pp. 3–4.