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Line 3: − Electricity, light, heat, mechanics (motion and inertia of things), gravitation, sound and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. + + − + − Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometres per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + Line 20:
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Line 107: − ==== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ====+ − ==== Rta ====+ − + − + − The term 'kinetic energy' does not carry the meanings as given in Vedic context. Hence ''ṛta'' does not merely mean motion but reveals that its motion is charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose. Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''. Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda. Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":2" /> + + + + + + + − + − ==== Yajna ====+ − ==== Ap (Water) ====+ − ==== Panchamahabhutas ====+ − + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + Line 70:
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Ancient Indian Physics (भौतिकविज्ञानम्) (view source)
Revision as of 19:41, 2 December 2025
, Tuesday at 19:41→Concept of Motion: added content
Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":0">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>
Ancient Indians contributed to the development of many concepts of modern Physics (Samskrit: भौतिकविज्ञानम्) much earlier than the advent of modern physics. The study of physics involves an understanding of the functioning, interactions and relationships between the fundamental components of the observable universe and the observable cosmos. The field of physics covers all aspects of the natural world, both at macroscopic and microscopic levels. The conception of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas,]] or the five gross elements, to explain the diversity of nature, was the foundational aspect of Indian physical shastras. Nature consists of a variety of things – solids, water, gas, fire, and space. Space, or Akasa, is considered eternal and was created to give material objects a positive reference, a substratum, and a medium on which things exist. In modern terms it resembles the concept of an all-pervading ether medium.<ref name=":0">Kumar, A. (2019). ''Ancient Hindu Science: its transmission and impact on world cultures''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2200/S00906ED1V01Y201903ENG034</nowiki> (chapter 5)</ref>
== Introduction ==
Physics deals with matter and energy and their interactions. Measurements are central to the growth of physics, and length (space), time, and mass are the three most important physical quantities, called the fundamental quantities. Most other physical quantities are generally expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. For example, speed is measured in miles per hour (or kilometers per hour) and involves a measurement of space (distance) and time.
== Introduction ==
Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.
== Source Texts for Physics in India ==
There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.
# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.
# [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|'''Upanishads''']] - They explain interconnectedness of matter-energy, their relationship and unity, the chemical qualities such as solubility, viscosity etc.
# '''Darshanas''' - They put forth the earliest atomic theory, defined matter, their interactions and attributes. [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika darshana]] elaborates the atomic theory (Paramanu), classified reality into seven padarthas and explained their characteristics.
# '''Puranas''' - A great deal of information on light, cosmology is specifically noted in Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya puranas.<ref>Kak, S. (1999). The Speed of Light and Puranic Cosmology. In ''Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,'' vol. 80, pp. 113-123, 1999. arXiv:physics/9804020v3 [physics.hist-ph] 15 Jan 2001</ref>
# '''Vaastu shastra, Shilpa shastra''' - They discuss the principles of structure, geometry, acoustics, and materials.
# '''Siddhanta granthas''' - Surya siddhanta for example describes the planetary motion, eclipses, calculation of time (concept of cyclic time, yugas, kalpas) and trignometric functions.
# '''Commentaries''' - Astronomical texts such as [[Aryabhata (आर्यभट्ट)|Aryabhata's]] Aryabhatiya gave the foundational concepts such as rotational motion of earth, celestial body calculations, correct order of planetary orbits and the infiniteness of the universe. Bhaskara II's Siddhanta Shiromani deals with advanced astronomical principles, mechanics and planetary equations. A commentary of Kamasutra by Visvakarma details design of machines.
# '''Other works''' - Many texts were lost but we find their references in major texts such as Mahabhashya, Mahabharata, Puranas, [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)|Arthashastra]] and Samarangana Sutradhara.
## '''Samarangana Sutradhara''' - Yantras or contrivances useful in creating mechanical objects such as birds, fountains are described in this text. It also describes yantras used in war machines, water-lifting instruments for agricultural uses, and time devices such as water clocks for astronomical measurements.
## '''Yantrarnava''' - describes physical concepts such as generation of power/energy or motion through the continuous movement of lever/pulley.
## '''Natyashastra''' - describes various musical instruments and their acoustical characteristics
## '''Agasthya Samhita''' - describes electrical cells
== Matter and Mass ==
== Padarthas in Vaiseshika Darshana ==
In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides matter, or substance into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":0" />
In order to define and distinguish matter, Kanāda divides matter, or substance into [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] or six categories (Vais. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":0" />
Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:
Matter of different materials have different attributes. For example, identical sizes of iron and cotton would have different weights. Apples can have differences in their colours and yet be called apples. It is the assembly of attributes that defines matter. Maharshi Kanada describes seventeen attributes, or gunas, of matter, and each of the bhutas, or elements, has special characteristics:
* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शवती पृथिवी । वैशेषिक-२,१.१ ।<ref name=":8">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref> Prithvi (Earth) has the attributes of color, taste, touch and smell
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* रूपरसस्पर्शवत्य आपो द्रवाः स्निग्धाः । वैशेषिक-२,१.२ । Ap (Water) has the attributes of color, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* तेजो रूपस्पर्शवत् । वैशेषिक-२,१.३ । Tejas or Agni (Fire) has color and touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
* त आकाशे न विद्यन्ते । वैशेषिक-२,१.५ । Akasa (space or ether) has no attribute of touch
*
*
=== Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===
In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>Gunas (17) are the qualities or properties or attributes. They include
# रूप or form/shape/colour
# रस or taste
# गन्ध or smell
# स्पर्श or touch
# संख्या or numbers/counting
# परिमाणानि or various measures such as length, area, volume, weight etc.
# पृथक्त्वं is being distinguished (to be separated)
# संयोग is conjunction or joining (or combination)
# विभाग is disjunction, disjoining or division
# परत्व is being next (spatially next or temporally later or subsequent)
# अपरत्व is being previous (spatially previous or temporally previous or earlier)
# बुद्धयः intellects (several)
# सुख is happiness
# दुःख is sorrow
# इच्छा is desire
# द्वेष is aversion
# प्रयत्नाः relates to efforts
The first 11 (from rupa to aparatva) are the qualities of physical substances or entities (dravya). The last 6 (from Buddhi to Prayatna) are the qualities of the Mind and Self (they are considered dravyas). Prayatna (effort) is a quality of Self while the rest of the 5 are the qualities of the mind.
The first 11 qualities mentioned above are well known as physical properties in Physics and Chemistry. Conventionally, every substance is examined for the same physical properties. Quality of counting is fundamental for any material entity. The qualities of being previous and being next are related to Space and time also. Conjunctive and disjunctive interactions are very common in Physics and chemistry wherein two or more entities or substances can be combined to form a new entity or an existing entity can be decomposed into several individual entities.
Prashastapada elaborated further on Gunas and brought in additional Gunas as follows:<ref name=":9" />
# गुरुत्व - Gurutva having weight, heaviness
# द्रवत्व - Dravatva having liquidity or fluidity
# स्नेह - Moisture, softness, viscidity or stickiness
# संस्कार - trait, habit, impression
# धर्म - Dharma or merit
# अधर्म - Adharma or demerit
# शब्द - Sound
Gunas are also elaborated in by Acharya Charaka in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]]
=== Air vs Space ===
=== Air vs Space ===
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":0" />
In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":0" />
=== Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===
Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space. <blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence.
Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":3">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>
इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>
- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.
Time, space, Atma and mind are the eternal or nitya dravyas and none of them are perceivable by any of the sense organs is a basic definition in Vaiseshika. Although, these four eternal entities can only be conceived by the mind, they are real existent dravyas or entities. Time, space and akasa are incapable of motion and it is only the earth, water, fire and air (the four dravyas) and mind which are capable of motion.<blockquote>
दिक्कालावाकाशं च क्रियावद्वैधर्म्यान्निष्क्रियाणि । वैशेषिक-५,२.२१ ।</blockquote>
Meaning: Space, time, Akasa and Atman (indicated by the word "Cha") are void of action because of their difference from that which possesses activity.<ref name=":3" />
Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.
== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==
These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.
These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.
=== Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":1">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>
A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":1">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>
=== Rta ===
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practicers of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energise the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":1" />
[[Rta (ऋतम्)|Rta]] is the cosmic law of harmony. ‘Rta’ means ‘the course of things’, order or law, and the primal principle, which is non-temporal and cohesive. It is a natural law which even the Vedic deities have to follow; they are often described as the "guardians of rta" and "practitioners of rta" in the Rigveda (1.23.5). The natural phenomena, such as the flow of rivers, change of seasons, and day and night, are stated to be in accordance with this natural law (Rig. Veda. 4.3.8-12; 5.80.1). Aditya, or Surya, is the all-pervading light extolled as the dweller in eternal law and, eventually, the eternal law itself (Rig Veda 4.40.5). The Rigvedic seers were convinced that nature is not as heterogeneous as it seems to us and that all types of natural motions are traceable to rta, which, according to them, is self-existent and ever extending. Symbolically, rta was also conceived by the Rigvedic seers as Varuna, who was supposed to have determined the laws of the physical universe. Rta helps Indra "light up and energize the whole world" and Ushas to "illumine the universe". As eternal order, it is transcendental, signifying uniformity of nature or an ordered course in a cosmic sense.<ref name=":1" />
The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest changed to kinetic form and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.''<ref name=":2">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
The Vedic seers had the instinctive conviction in the natural order. They conceived the external world as an ordered whole and that its dynamic or changing phenomena were regulated by rta. Vedas state that the emergence of ''ṛta'' is the initiation of the process of creation. In the context of physical sciences, it is not far-fetched to infer that Prakriti from the state of existence (first attribute) undergoes a change by way of rajas guna (second attribute), or motion. In modern scientific language this would mean that energy at rest (Potential Energy) changed to kinetic form (Kinetic Energy) and thus the Vedic term for modern kinetic energy is ''ṛta.'' The term Kinetic Energy relates purely to motion and does not carry other meanings related to rta as in the Vedic context, i.e., rta represents motion charged with the knowledge of accomplishing some purpose.<ref name=":2">Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Rta is all science, divine and is never wrong, rta is always right as Vedic language calls the divergence from rta as ''anṛta'' i.e., not ''ṛta''.
Rta through its constant motion lays down the pattern of the cosmic law which governs, controls and maintains all creation and the entire activity, actions and re-actions, related with the same. This cosmic law is called ''dharma'' by Veda.
Dharma is science and nothing but science an most certainly not religion in the Vedic context.<ref>Verma, K. D. (2012). ''Vedic Physics: Towards Unification of Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity''. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,. (27-31)
<nowiki>https://archive.org/details/vedic-physics-keshav-dev-verma</nowiki></ref>
Dharma is neither any worship or a ritual; science is the knowledge of order and '''dharma is the order''' itself.<ref name=":2" />
rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)
rtam ca satyam ca (Rig. Veda. 10.190.1)
Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.
Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":2" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.
=== Yajna ===
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":1" />
Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":1" />
=== Ap (Water) ===
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":1" />
The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":1" />
=== Panchamahabhutas ===
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasised, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":1" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Pancabhutas (mahabhutani), the five elements are prthvi, ap, tejas, vayu, and akasa, which are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.
The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":1" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.
== Concept of Motion ==
=== Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===
Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":10">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the change of place of particles and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.
एकद्रव्यवत्त्वं क्षणिकत्वं मूर्तद्रव्यवृत्तित्वम् अगुणवत्वं गुरुत्वद्रवत्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजत्वं स्वकार्यसंयोगविरोधित्वं संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणत्वम् असमवायिकारणत्वं स्वपराश्रयसमवेतकार्यारम्भकत्वं समानजातीयानारम्भकत्वं द्रव्यानारम्भकत्वं च प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं च विशेषः ।।
These properties may be stated as follows:<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":11" />
# peculiarity of a single motion affecting a single body (at a given time) since its change of place at that moment is one and definite.
# instantaneous change of place (simplest form of motion)
# property of relating to a single body; the action of a composite whole is determined by the action of the constituent parts taken together
# a lack of gunas or qualities
# property of being generated by gravity, fluidity, volitional effort, and conjunctions (samyoga)
# property of being opposed by conjunctions caused by themselves
# property of acting as independent cause of conjunctions and disjunctions
# property of acting as non-inherent cause
# property of initiating effects (by conjunctions and disjunctions) in their own as well as in other substrates
# inability to initiate its own kind
# inability to generate motion in other bodies
# ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)
Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards motion as instantaneous, distinguishing it from impressed motion, and momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":11" />
=== Cosmic Motion ===
In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":4">Chatterjee, S. D. (1986). Physics and Mechanics in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India'' (Vol. 6, pp. 101–114). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,
=== Atoms are in a state of Motion ===
Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":4" />
* ability to act as substratum of qualities/attributes
* being endowed with motion (kriyatattva)
* to provide an inherent or material cause
Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g. vibration). All action, operation, work (Kriya, Vyapara) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff.<ref name=":11">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co.</ref>
=== Karma or Activity in terms of Physical Motion ===
'''Three characteristics of Karma''' or activity defined as per Vaiseshika Sutras are<blockquote>एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्ष कारणमिति कर्मलक्षणम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.१७ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.17)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The three characteristics are
# Activity depends on substance
# Activity does not possess any quality inherently. It is substance that possess guṇa and karma.
# Movements cause disjunction (Vibhāga) of a substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (saṃyoga) with a new position. Thus activity brings out conjunction and disjunction.
-In a living organism, karma is initiated from within by Effort (Prayatna).
-In a non-living organism, karma is not initiated from within and needs an external agent to initiate. This is because effort (Prayatna) is a quality of the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Ātman]].
'''Kinds of Karma''': Motion in the sense of activity is of five kinds.<blockquote>उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>They are<ref name=":9">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref>
* Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement, upward thrust)
* Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement, downward thrust)
* Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion, pulling towards a point)
* Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension, spreading, transmission)
* Gamana (general movements)
It is interesting to see the definition of general motion distinguished from the other four specific categories of motion. Prashastapada identified many more categories of motion as follows:<blockquote>गमनग्रहणाद्भ्रमण-रेचन-स्पन्दनोर्ध्वज्वलनतिर्यक्पतननमनोन्नमनादयो गमनविशेषाः । (Prashastapada Bhashya<ref name=":10" />)</blockquote>While motion (gamana) can mean, in general, any type of motion, as defined in a given context, Prashastapada has identified some well known additional categories of motion that are universally observable and referred to in later sutras of Vaiseshika:<ref name=":9" />
* भ्रमणम् or circular motion or rotation
* रेचनम् or gushing out or expulsion
* स्पंदनम् is the harmonic motion or beat (as in the case of heart beat or हृदयस्पंदनम्)
* ऊर्ध्वज्वलनम् or upward burning (of flame)
* तिर्यक्पतनम् or falling backwards
* नमनम् or bending forward
* उन्नमनम् rising upward
'''Properties of Karma''': In the following sutra Kanada Maharshi describes the properties of all dravya (material entities, guna (qualities themselves) and karma (motion).<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>सदनित्यं द्रव्यवत् कार्यं कारणं सामान्यविशेषवदिति द्रव्यगुणकर्मणामविशेषः । वैशेषिक-१,१.८ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.7)<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>The following are the general properties of dravya, guna and karma.<ref name=":9" />
* Having existence (सद्)
* being अनित्यं or impermanent (temporary)
* being द्रव्यवत् कार्यं or the result or effect (of something which is a cause)
* being the कारणं or cause (of something which is a result or effect)
* being सामान्य or generalized and विशेषवत् or specialized
Prashastapada adds two more properties to the above namely अभिधेयत्व and ज्ञेयत्व i.e., naming (them) and knowing (them). It meaning being identified with a name and also being known.
=== Geocentrism and Rotatory Motion of Earth ===
The Indian traditional astronomy is essentially geo-centric and geo-static inasmuch as the Earth is considered to be a stationary sphere at the centre of the solar system. The Sun, the Moon and the planets have a motion of their own from west to east while the asterisms or the stellar sphere is considered to have their motion from east to west, as a result of which the former are supposed to fall behind the latter. This geocentric and geo-stationary view was for the first time modified by Aryabhata I who, while maintaining the geo-centric idea, conceived of a direct rotation of the Earth about its axis, and even gave a precise rate of rotation stating that the Earth rotates through an angle of one second in one prana of time.<ref>Subbarayappa, B. V., & Sarma, K. V. (1985). ''Indian Astronomy: A Source-book: Based primarily on Sanskrit texts''. Nehru Centre. <nowiki>http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10111373</nowiki></ref>
=== Gravitation ===
=== Vega: Inertia, Momentum and Acceleration ===
A motion has been conceived as a change of place in a particle, instantaneous and incapable of producing another motion. But when motion is caused by impact (abhighata) or impelling push (nodana) it develops a samskara or persistent tendency to motion. This persistent tendency of a moving body to continue its motion has been called vega. That vega is a samkara has been clearly stated by Prashastapada. According to him, samskara is of three types<ref name=":4" />
* vega or momentum
* bhavana or mental impression
* sthitisthapaka or elasticity
The concept of vega closely fits in with the modern concept of momentum. Vaiseshikas accept one and the same samskara lasting till the cessation of motion. Uddyotakara and other writiers of the Nyaya school suppose a series of samskaras, each one generating the one that succeeds it. Nyaya view implies the modern idea of acceleration. The power of samskara diminishes by doing work against the counteracting forces and gradually when it gets exhausted, the moving body comes to rest. Thus Vega corresponds to inertia in some respects and to momentum (impressed motion) in others. It is the nearest approach to Newton's first law of motion.<ref name=":4" />
== Light ==
== Light ==
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.
The concept of light has been an important part of Indian shastras and is associated with various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas (Radiance). The symbol of light has been used in Indian texts to describe knowledge and spiritual practice and as a symbol of enlightenment, inner strength, transformation and energy. Jyotish itself means “light” or “illumination” and refers to the idea that the study of astrology sheds light on the mysteries of the universe and our place within it.<ref name=":5">Sharma, R., Kamlesh Thakkar, & Dubey, K. K. (2024). Physics in ancient Indian knowledge system. ''Journal of Technology'', 267–268.</ref>
* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Jyotish''' uses the positions of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena to understand and interpret human affairs and natural phenomena.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Jnana''' is often associated with the concept of light in Indian philosophy. Light illuminates and removes the darkness; similarly, jnana illuminates our minds and removes ignorance to reveal the truth of our nature and the nature of the universe.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Surya''' is an important symbol of light and illumination in Hinduism. The sun is often associated with knowledge, enlightenment, and the power of consciousness to dispel darkness and ignorance. Rituals and practices are performed at sunrise and sunset, when the light of the sun is believed to be most potent.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.
* '''Tejas''' refers to radiance or brilliance. Tejas is associated with the concept of [[Agni (अग्निः)|agni]], or fire, and is considered to be a form of energy that fills the universe. It is often associated with the concept of tapas, or spiritual discipline, and is believed to be the source of inner strength, energy, and illumination.<ref name=":5" />
== ऊर्जा तापश्च ॥ Energy and Heat ==
Vedic Physics describes Prakriti as the material cause of the the creation while in modern physics it is called Energy. Affected by the divine touch of [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]], [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakriti]] the inert unconscious entity is set into motion, i.e., rta, and invariably follows the creative process. Characteristics of Prakriti include having eternal existence and capability of conserving itself in any of the three states of its being namely<ref name=":2" />
* existence
* motion
* and transformation to any form of matter
'''Potential and Kinetic Energy:''' In many Veda mantras, Agni represents the forms of Energy.<ref name=":6">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref> In Yajurveda<blockquote>अग्निरमृतो नि धायि । (Yaju. Veda. 12.24)<ref name=":7">Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>
अग्निरमृतोऽभवद् वयोभिर् । (Yaju. Veda. 12.25)</blockquote>Meaning - Agni (Energy form) is eternal and indestructible. It remains indestructible in the mortal world or jagat, due to its potential energy denoted by the term वयस्।
Earlier it was seen how Rta is understood as Kinetic Energy.
'''Transformation of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> Vedas proclaim that Agni (in the form of Energy) is One; it undergoes transformation and hence various are its names. It has the capability to all activities, hence it is called Visvakarma. Urja or energy takes many forms hence it is called Vishvarupa. <blockquote>यो देवानां नामधा एक एव.. ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda 10.82.3)<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%A8 Mandala 10 Sukta 82])</ref>
स्तीर्णा अस्य संहतो विश्वरूपा । (Rig. Veda. 3.1.7)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9.%E0%A5%A7 Mandala 3 Sukta 1])</ref> </blockquote>
'''Omnipresence of Energy''':<ref name=":6" /> All [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]] proclaim that Agni imparts the quality of movement or chetana and is all-pervading in every atom of the Dyulok (heavenly), Antariksha (Celestial region) and Earth. Due to this energy, there is movement, existence and transformation in every particle. Hence Agni is said to pervade the heavens and earth with the core activity of causing movement. <blockquote>रोदसी भानुना भात्यन्तः ॥४॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.45.4)<ref>Rig Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AB Mandala 10 Sukta 45])</ref>
विश्वस्य केतुर् भुवनस्य गर्भऽ आ रोदसी ऽ अपृणाज् जायमानः । (Yajurveda. 12.23)<ref name=":7" /> </blockquote>'''Power of Expansion''':<ref name=":6" /> Yajurveda recounts the expansive quality of extreme heat (denoted by the term त्वेषः) energy in Agni, which causes the expansion of the universe/world.
अग्ने ... येनान्तरिक्षम् उर्व् आततन्थ त्वेषः स भानुर् अर्णवो नृचक्षाः ॥ (Yajurveda. 12.48)<ref name=":7" />
'''Forms of Energy''': Yajurveda talks about the "three bodies" or forms of Agni.
# या ते अग्नेऽयःशया तनूः - Ayas (अयस्) here means dhatu or metal; Agni or Energy within the metals. The core of the earth is described as ball of metallic fire. ('''Terrestrial Metallic Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने रजःशया तनूः - Rajas (रजस्) denotes molecules in space and the energy form is indicated by Vidyut or Electricity, thunderstorms, and hurricanes. ('''Atmospheric Form of Energy''')
# या ते अग्ने हरिशया तनूः - The term Hari (हरि) represents Sun and sunrays. The heat energy residing in Sun and the warmth and heat of sun all represent the heat form of energy. ('''Solar Form of Energy''')
== Interesting Vedic knowledge of Surya ==
'''Solar Energy''': Vedic knowledge of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Surya]] and its energy is extensive according to Dwivedi.<ref name=":6" /> He provides the textual references to the following aspects
- सप्त आदित्या: Sapta Aditya (सप्त दिशो नानासूर्याः...), '''there are seven suns''' according to Rigveda (9.114.3) and Atharvaveda mentions that the central Surya is Kashyap, while Taittriya Aranyaja (1.7.1) gives the names of these seven suns.
- '''Hydrogen and Helium as the energy source''': सोमेन - आदित्या बलिन: । (Atha. Veda. 14.1.2) Dwivedi refers Soma to Hydrogen from which Sun gains its energy. Yajurveda (9.3)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 9])</ref> refers two tattvas or nature of Sun's energy that exist in Surya - सूर्ये सन्तं समाहितम्
# "अपां रसम्" meaning that which is the essence of Ap or water in a gaseous form denoted by the term "उद्वयस्" Udvayas. These in modern terms refer to Hydrogen (split from water) in a gaseous form.
# "अपां रसस्य यो रस:" meaning that which is the essence of the essence of Ap which in modern terms indicates Helium.
- '''Sun spots''': Rigvedic terms (Rig. Veda. 1.164.14) such as चक्षु (मंडल, घेरा) रजस् (धूल, धब्ब) indicate that Surya is associated with spots, a fact identified since early ancient times.
- Sun-rays: The seven horses of Surya represent the seven rays of the sun. <blockquote>अव दिवस्तारयन्ति सप्त सूर्यस्य रश्मयः । आपः समुद्रिया धारास्तास्ते शल्यमसिस्रसन् ॥१॥<ref>Atharva Veda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Kanda 7 Sukta 112])</ref></blockquote>Many such concepts require further studies and exploration in terms of modern sciences.
== Electricity ==
Different kinds of electricity
• Tadita (तडित) Generated by rubbing silk cloths
• Saudamini (सौदामिनी ) Generated by rubbing two gems
• Vidyut (विद्युत) Generated from thunder
• Shatakumbhi (शतकुंभी) Generated by hundred cells of pillars (Kumbha’s)
• Hrdani (हृदनी) Stored electricity with portable properties
• Ashani (अशनी) – Generated from magnetic rods (P. P. Hole –Machines in Samskrit Literature)
=== Construction of Electric Cell ===
It is mentioned by some scholars that Agasthya described how to make an electric battery and separate water into oxygen and hydrogen.<ref name=":5" /><ref>Ali, T., Afrin, D., & Gain, J. (2024). The Contribution of Ancient India to the Advancement of Modern physics: A Comprehensive study. ''International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research and Innovation'', 245–252. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.17613/75bc-9552</nowiki></ref><blockquote>संस्थाप्य मृण्मये पात्रे ताम्रपात्रं सुसंस्कृतम्। छादयेच्छिखिग्रीवेन चार्दाभि: काष्ठापांसुभि:॥ </blockquote>A clay pot was covered with a clean copper plate, copper sulfate, and moist sawdust. The cathode, Mitra, and the anode, Varuna, were zinc amalgam sheets placed on top of these layers. To boost electricity, 100 Shata Kumbha jars were linked. As the reaction occurred, water split into Oxygen (pranavayu) and Hydrogen (udanavayu). In an airtight cloth, hydrogen gas was collected for aerodynamic use.
However, the shloka has been unverified at the time of compilation of this article. In the reference<ref>Jha, B. (Ed.). (2009). ''Agastya Samhita''. Mahavir Mandir Prakashan. (p. 30-32)
<nowiki>https://dn790000.ca.archive.org/0/items/agastya-samhita-sage-agastya-bhavanath-jha/Agastya%20Samhita%20-%20Sage%20Agastya%20%2C%20Bhavanath%20Jha.pdf</nowiki></ref> of the text '''Agastya samhita, edited by Pt. Bhavanath Jha''', Acharya Kishore Kunal in his preface discussed the topic of Agasthya samhita's association with the usage and preparation of dry battery cell. He brings into context several aspects of scholarly discussions about Varuna, Pranavayu and Udanavayu that throw light on the later day interpolations and wrong attributions of electric batteries to Agastya Samhita. It was shown how Agasthya samhita deals with yoga and higher philosophical contexts and does not contain aspects of Physics. This information he mentions was posted by Chinmay Yuva Kendra in 2006 in a website, under the heading "Ancient Indian Approach to Science" as a part of Chronicles of Hinduism series.
== References ==
== References ==
[[Category:Physics]]
[[Category:Physics]]