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[[File:Properties of Sulphur Element.png|thumb|352x352px|Courtesy: Brasted, R. C.. "sulfur." Encyclopedia Britannica, September 14, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfur</nowiki>.]]

[[File:Properties of Sulphur Element.png|thumb|352x352px|Courtesy: Brasted, R. C.. "sulfur." Encyclopedia Britannica, September 14, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfur</nowiki>.]]

Gandhaka (Samskrit: गन्धकः) means Sulphur (also Sulfur) in English. It is a chemical element with atomic number 16 and chemical formula 'S'. Sulfur (S), nonmetallic chemical element belonging to the oxygen group (Group 16 [VIa] of the periodic table), is one of the most reactive of the elements. Pure sulfur is a tasteless, odourless, brittle solid that is pale yellow in colour, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. It reacts with all metals except gold and platinum, forming sulfides; it also forms compounds with several nonmetallic elements. Millions of tons of sulfur are produced each year, mostly for the manufacture of sulfuric acid, which is widely used in industry.<ref name=":0">Brasted, R. C.. "sulfur." Encyclopedia Britannica, September 14, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfur</nowiki>.</ref>  

Gandhaka (Samskrit: गन्धकः) means Sulphur (also Sulfur) in English. It is a chemical element with atomic number 16 and chemical formula 'S'. Sulfur (S), nonmetallic chemical element belonging to the oxygen group (Group 16 [VIa] of the periodic table), is one of the most reactive of the elements. Pure sulfur is a tasteless, odourless, brittle solid that is pale yellow in colour, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. It reacts with all metals except gold and platinum, forming sulfides; it also forms compounds with several nonmetallic elements. Millions of tons of sulfur are produced each year, mostly for the manufacture of sulfuric acid, which is widely used in industry.<ref name=":0">Brasted, R. C.. "sulfur." Encyclopedia Britannica, September 14, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfur</nowiki>.</ref>

 

 

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

In Ayurveda's [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)]], sulphur is used widely in medicinal formulations. In [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)]] treatises, various details about sulphur like appearance, types, purification, processing, use in medicinal formulations etc., have been discussed in depth. Although sulfa drugs are popularly used antibiotics and represent therapeutic use of Sulphur in Western medicine, the nature and form in which sulphur in utilized in Ayurvedic medicines is completely different and it has been in practice for thousands of years before western medicine used it as antibiotic.<ref name=":1" />  

In Ayurveda's [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)]], sulphur is used widely in medicinal formulations. In [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)]] treatises, various details about sulphur like appearance, types, purification, processing, use in medicinal formulations etc., have been discussed in depth. Although sulfa drugs are popularly used antibiotics and represent therapeutic use of Sulphur in Western medicine, the nature and form in which sulphur in utilized in Ayurvedic medicines is completely different and it has been in practice for thousands of years before western medicine used it as antibiotic.<ref name=":1" /> Gandhak is second most important mineral of Rasa-Shastra. It is enumerated in Uparasa, and having a characteristic smell. Though it is a non-metal, ancient Indian alchemists studied about this element at length, its ores, availability and properties and its role in curing physical decay, skin diseases and senility has been in use in Ayurveda. For any mercurial preparations it is most demanding mineral. Sulphur may reduce the nephrotoxic and allergic manifestations of mercury. The uses of Gandhaka started from Samhita period and its external or internal uses indicate that the Acharyas were well aware about their therapeutic properties.<ref name=":3">'''Jolly Saxena, Vinita and Ankur Saxena (2020);''' [https://www.journalijar.com/article/33883/gandhak-(sulphur)-a-conceptual-study/ GANDHAK (SULPHUR) A CONCEPTUAL STUDY] ''Int. J. of Adv. Res.'' '''8''' (Jul). 1162-1168] (ISSN 2320-5407)</ref>  

== पर्यायाः ॥ Synonyms of Gandhaka used in Ayurveda ==

== पर्यायाः ॥ Synonyms of Gandhaka used in Ayurveda ==

According to Mishra<ref name=":1" />, the following are the synonyms used for sulphur.

According to Rasajalanidhi, the following are the synonyms used for sulphur.<blockquote>गन्धाश्मा गन्धको गन्धो गन्धी च गन्धिको वलिः। सौगन्धिकः सुगन्धिकः पामघ्नो गन्धमादनः ॥

Rasajalanidhi<ref name=":2">Mookerjee, Bhudeb. (1984 Second Edition) ''Rasa-Jala-Nidhi or Ocean of Indian Chemistry, Medicine and Alchemy'', ''Vol. 2'' Varanasi: Srigokul Mudranalaya</ref> cites a few more following terms

 

गन्धाश्मा गन्धको गन्धो गन्धी च गन्धिकों वलिः। सौगन्धिकः सुगन्धिकः पामघ्नो गन्धमोदनः ॥  

शुल्वारिः पूतगन्धश्च कुष्ठारिर्दिव्यगन्धकः। सुगन्धी रसगन्धश्च कीटघ्नः क्रूरगन्धकः ॥  

शुल्वारिः पूतगन्धश्च कुष्ठारिर्दिव्यगन्धकः। सुगन्धी रसगन्धश्च कीटघ्नः क्रूरगन्धकः ॥  

नवनीतस्तथा प्रोक्तो गन्धेशः शरभूमिजः।   

नवनीतस्तथा प्रोक्तो गन्धेशः शरभूमिजः।   

== इतिहासः ॥ History ==

== इतिहासः ॥ History ==

The knowledge of Indians about sulfur is very ancient. In the oldest and most popular treatise of Ayurveda [[Charaka Samhita (चरक संहिता)]] which was written 1200 years before Christ, sulfur has been used at many places for the treatment of many diseases. Its use has increased in texts written in later times. In the texts after the 8th century, Parada (पारदः Mercury) was mixed with Gandhaka and used in medicines and in Dhatuvada (धातुवाद) or metallurgical work. Since then till today no metal work is done without sulphur. The name Shulbari etc. is the symbol of Sulphur being the enemy of copper. If copper is heated by mixing sulphur, then copper gets destroyed.

The knowledge of Indians about sulfur is very ancient. In the oldest and most popular treatise of Ayurveda [[Charaka Samhita (चरक संहिता)]] which was written 1200 years before Christ, sulfur has been used at many places for the treatment of many diseases. Its use has increased in texts written in later times. In the texts after the 8th century, Parada (पारदः Mercury) was mixed with Gandhaka and used in medicines and in Dhatuvada (धातुवाद) or metallurgical work. Since then till today no metal work is done without sulphur. The name Shulbari etc. is the symbol of Sulphur being the enemy of copper. If copper is heated by mixing sulphur, then copper gets destroyed.

Mercury is considered an element of Shiva, whereas sulphur, an element of Parvati and the product that was created from their union in asafoetida was called ras sindur, which was considered the essence for longevity.<ref>Soni, Suresh. India's Glorious Scientific Tradition. </ref> In History of Hindu Chemistry, Sulphur has been mentioned as one of the eight uparasas, useful in operations of mercury.<ref>Ray, Prafulla Chandra. (1903) ''A history of Hindu Chemistry, from the earliest times to the middle of the sixteenth century A.D., Vol. 1''. Calcutta: The Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works, Ltd</ref>

In History of Hindu Chemistry, Sulphur has been mentioned as one of the eight uparasas, useful in operations of mercury.<ref>Ray, Prafulla Chandra. (1903) ''A history of Hindu Chemistry, from the earliest times to the middle of the sixteenth century A.D., Vol. 1''. Calcutta: The Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works, Ltd</ref> Mercury is one of the metals which attracted wide attention of ayurvedic chemists and physicians. Indeed the documentation of chemical and physical processes involving mercury is truly enormous in ancient texts of which classics by Vagabhatta and Nagarjuna are noteworthy. Among the various procedures which utilize mercury, we became interested in the one that involves mercury and sulfur.

 

 

 

Mercury is considered an element of Shiva, whereas sulphur, an element of Parvati and the product that was created from their union in asafoetida was called ras sindur, which was considered the essence for longevity.<ref>Soni, Suresh. India's Glorious Scientific Tradition. </ref>

== स्वरूपम् ॥ Appearance ==

== स्वरूपम् ॥ Appearance ==

Gandhaka is available in both free and bound forms. Sulfur mixed with metals is available in pure form near volcanic mountains and at other places. Sulfur is found in the form of both sulphide and sulphate compounds.  

Gandhaka is available in both free and bound forms. Sulfur mixed with metals is available in pure form near volcanic mountains and at other places. Sulfur is found in the form of both sulphide and sulphate compounds.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>निमेलस्तु रजनीसमप्रभो दीप्तिमांश्च नबनीतकोमलः । कीर्तितो ह्यमलसारसंज्ञको गन्धको रसरसायने वरः ॥|४।। (Rasa. Tara. 8.4)

 

nimēlastu rajanīsamaprabhō dīptimāṁśca nabanītakōmalaḥ | kīrtitō hyamalasārasaṁjñakō gandhakō rasarasāyanē varaḥ |||4|| </blockquote>In Rasatarangini, the qualities of gandhaka are: it should have nirmal (clean without physical impurities), Rajanisamaprabha (yellow colour as Haridra), Deeptimamscha (lustrous) and Navneetkomalah (soft like butter). Only Amalasara Gandhaka has these properties, so used for many medicinal preparations.  

== गन्धकखनिजानि ॥ Sulfur Minerals ==

== गन्धकखनिजानि ॥ Sulfur Minerals ==

=== प्राप्तिस्थानम् ॥ Place of Availability ===

=== प्राप्तिस्थानम् ॥ Place of Availability ===

Free sulfur is found in the Sicilian volcanic region of 'Italy', New Zealand, Japan, Spain, Texas etc. countries. It can also be found in countries like Russia, Japan, Burma, Iceland, America, Chile, Philippines, etc. In India, sulfur is found in abundance in Singhbhum district and Rohitas district of Jharkhand province, in Rajasthan, Kumaon and Assam.

Free sulfur is found in the Sicilian volcanic region of 'Italy', New Zealand, Japan, Spain, Texas etc. countries. It can also be found in countries like Russia, Japan, Burma, Iceland, America, Chile, Philippines, etc. In India, sulfur is found in abundance in Singhbhum district and Rohitas district of Jharkhand province, in Rajasthan, Kumaon and Assam.<ref name=":1" />

== गन्धकभेदाः ॥ Sulfur Types ==

== गन्धकभेदाः ॥ Sulfur Types ==

Ayurveda scholars have described various types of Gandhaka. It is classified on the basis of color, mode of consumption or utilization etc. Depending on its colour the supremacy of the gandhaka type and its value based on it has been decided. Gandhaka types are thus further also graded into good, better, best types. From a philosophical point of view, sulfur is the same but there are many differences of sulfur in shape, color etc.   

Ayurveda scholars have described various types of Gandhaka. It is classified on the basis of color, mode of consumption or utilization etc. Depending on its colour the supremacy of the gandhaka type and its value based on it has been decided. Gandhaka types are thus further also graded into good, better, best types. From a philosophical point of view, sulfur is the same but there are many differences of sulfur in shape, color etc.   

Four types of Sulphur are categorized based on colour<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />   

Four types of Sulphur are categorized based on colour<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><blockquote>चतुर्धा गन्धको ज्ञेयो वर्णैः श्वेतादिभिः खलु । श्वेतोऽत्र खटिकाकारो लेपनाल्लोहमारणः ॥ 

 

 

रक्तश्च शुकतुण्डाख्यो धातुवादविधौ वारः । दुर्लभः कृष्णवर्णश्च स जरामृत्युनाशनः ॥<ref name=":2" />   

चतुर्धा गन्धको ज्ञेयो वर्णैः श्वेतादिभिः खलु । श्वेतोऽत्र खटिकाकारो लेपनाल्लोहमारणः ॥  

caturdhā gandhakō jñēyō varṇaiḥ śvētādibhiḥ khalu | śvētō’tra khaṭikākārō lēpanāllōhamāraṇaḥ ||  

# रक्तवर्णः ॥ '''Rakta''' - Red in color. Also known as Shukatundanibha i.e. of the color of Parrot's beak. This type is considered the best one and utilized chiefly in Dhatuvada (Metallurgy)

# '''श्वेतवर्णः ॥''' '''Shweta''' - Also known as Khatika type (chalk type) which is white in color. It is of inferior quality. It is capable of incinerating a metal by besmearing the latter (Loha Marana).

# पीतवर्णः ॥ '''Peeta''' - Yellow in color. Also known as aamlasara or Shukapichhanibha i.e of the color of tail of parrot.  This type is commonly used in medicine.

# '''पीतवर्णः ॥''' '''Peeta''' - Yellow in color. Also known as aamla-sara or Shukapichhanibha i.e of the color of tail of parrot.  This type is commonly used in medicine. It is best suited to the requirements of mercury and of medicines prepared to cure aging.

# श्वेतवर्णः ॥ '''Shweta''' - Also known as Khatika type which is white in color. It is of inferior quality.

# '''रक्तवर्णः ॥''' '''Rakta''' - Red in color. Also known as Shukatundanibha i.e. of the color of Parrot's beak.  This type is considered the best one and utilized chiefly in Dhatuvada (Metallurgy). It is best suited to the requirements of alchemy.

# कृष्णवर्णः ॥ '''Krshna''' - It is said to be the rarest type of Gandhaka

# '''कृष्णवर्णः ॥''' '''Krshna''' - It is said to be the rarest type of Gandhaka. It can ward off senility and death.

Form of Gandhaka which is considered best for use in Medicine

Form of Gandhaka which is considered best for use in Medicine

# विषम् ॥ Visha Dosha (chemical impurities like arsenic, lead etc)

# विषम् ॥ Visha Dosha (chemical impurities like arsenic, lead etc)

Therefore, it should be purified by a skilled physician with care. Impure sulphur gives rise to leprosy, giddiness, diseases due to an excess of pitta, loss of beauty, happiness, strength and semen.

Therefore, it should be purified by a skilled physician with care. Impure sulphur gives rise to leprosy, giddiness, diseases due to an excess of pitta, loss of beauty, happiness, strength and semen.<ref name=":1" />

 

 

If these impurities are not removed before use Gandhaka is likely to produce following diseases - Tāpa (fever), Raktajanya Vikṛti (blood related disorders), Cittavibhrama (vertigo), Kuṣṭha (leprosy), Pittaja vyādhi (Pitta associated disorders), Śukrahāni (seminal loss), Kāmalā (jaundice) so must be purified before use.

=== Harmful effects of consuming impure Sulphur ===

=== Harmful effects of consuming impure Sulphur ===

Ayurveda advocates use of any mineral or metal only after its thorough purification known as Shodhana. It is applicable for Gandhaka as well. Rasashastra branch of Ayurveda provides various methods to purify and process Gandhaka before using it in the medicinal formulations. If the appropriate methods of processing Gandhaka are not used or they are skipped and such Gandhaka/Sulphur is used in the medicinal formulations then it can certainly cause some ill effects. Ayurveda acharyas have deeply studied these effects and described those to make people aware and cautious. There is tale about origin of Sulphur and its resultant effects

Ayurveda advocates use of any mineral or metal only after its thorough purification known as Shodhana. It is applicable for Gandhaka as well. Rasashastra branch of Ayurveda provides various methods to purify and process Gandhaka before using it in the medicinal formulations. If the appropriate methods of processing Gandhaka are not used or they are skipped and such Gandhaka/Sulphur is used in the medicinal formulations then it can certainly cause some ill effects. Ayurveda acharyas have deeply studied these effects and described those to make people aware and cautious.

Leprosy by consuming impure sulphur- Anger

Leprosy by consuming impure sulphur- Anger

== Properties of pure sulfur ==

== Properties of pure sulfur ==

Pure sulfur is leprosy killer. Makes immortal. Yet old age and death are destroyers. There is a fire lamp, it is very hot. increase in body semen

Pure sulfur is leprosy killer. Makes immortal. Yet old age and death are destroyers. There is a fire lamp, it is very hot. increase in body semen