Changes

* '''Karma Cycle''' - As long as self is attached to the body and senses, it goes through the cycles of birth and death.  

* '''Karma Cycle''' - As long as self is attached to the body and senses, it goes through the cycles of birth and death.  

* '''Moksha''' -  It is the state of refrain from all kinds of sufferings and bondage which arise because of the self’s association with body and sense organs. Knowledge of the sixteen categories or padarthas is the cause of Moksha, depends on the grace of Ishvara.

* '''Moksha''' -  It is the state of refrain from all kinds of sufferings and bondage which arise because of the self’s association with body and sense organs. Knowledge of the sixteen categories or padarthas is the cause of Moksha, depends on the grace of Ishvara.

=== Discussion of Certain Concepts ===

=== Brief discussion about certain concepts ===

'''1. Knowledge and Pramanas'''

'''1. Jnana (Knowledge) and Pramanas'''

Interpreting the term ‘knowledge’ Nyāyikas say that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge is valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>

Interpreting the term ‘knowledge’ Nyāyikas say that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge is valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>

* Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Isvara'''  

* Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Isvara'''  

Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of Ishvara.<ref name=":1" /> Ishvara is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. He supervises the work of Adrishta. He does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. He is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. He is endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. Ishvara is a Personal Being.  <blockquote>ईश्वरः कारणं पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् १९ (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.19)  

Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of Ishvara.<ref name=":1" /> Ishvara is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. He supervises the work of Adrishta. He does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. He is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. He is endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. Ishvara is a Personal Being.  <blockquote>ईश्वरः कारणं पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् १९ (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.19)

न पुरुषकर्माभावे फलानिष्पत्तेः २० (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.20)<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4])</ref> </blockquote>He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). Ishvara is One, a Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Creation involves the ordering of the eternal entities, which co-exist with Ishvara, into a moral world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit or demerit of their actions. All physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of human life.<ref name=":2" /> The Nyaya system admits that without the grace of Ishvara it is impossible for any Jiva to attain true knowledge or to reach the state of Moksha.<ref name=":4">Rejita, C. (2015) ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/401876 The Nature of Body and Soul in Nyaya Philosophy.]'' University of Kerala, Thiruvanantapuram (Chap. 2, p94-96)</ref>  

न पुरुषकर्माभावे फलानिष्पत्तेः २० (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.20)<ref>Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Adhyaya 4])</ref> </blockquote>He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). Ishvara is One, a Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Creation involves the ordering of the eternal entities, which co-exist with Ishvara, into a moral world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit or demerit of their actions. All physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of human life.<ref name=":2" /> The Nyaya system admits that without the grace of Ishvara it is impossible for any Jiva to attain true knowledge or to reach the state of Moksha.<ref name=":4">Rejita, C. (2015) ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/401876 The Nature of Body and Soul in Nyaya Philosophy.]'' University of Kerala, Thiruvanantapuram (Chap. 2, p94-96)</ref>  

Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Devesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or vicious—which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the aim of philosophy to eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which is at the root of all miseries and pains. On the successive annihilation of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there follows release (Apavarga).<ref name=":1" />

Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Devesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or vicious—which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the aim of philosophy to eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which is at the root of all miseries and pains. On the successive annihilation of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there follows release (Apavarga).<ref name=":1" />

'''6. [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or The Sixteen Categories'''

'''7. [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or The Sixteen Categories'''

One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. The sixteen categories are: means of right knowledge (Pramana), object of right knowledge (Prameya), doubt (Samsaya), purpose (Prayojana), familiar instance (Drishtanta), established tenet (Siddhanta), members (Avayava), argumentation (Tarka), ascertainment (Nirnaya), discussion (Vada) wrangling (Jalpa), cavil (Vitanda), fallacy (Hetvabhasa), quibble (Chala), futility (Jati), and occasion for rebuke (Nigraha-sthana).  

One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. <blockquote>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानाम् तत्त्वज्ञानात् निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ।। १ ।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.1)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>The sixteen categories are:<ref name=":2" />{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 500px; font-style: italic;|* Means of Right Knowledge (pramana)

* Objects of Right Knowledge (prameya)

* Doubt (samsaya)

* Purpose (prayojana)

* Example (drstanta)

* Tenet (siddhanta)

* Members of Syllogism (avayava)

* Confutation (tarka)

* Ascertainment (nirnaya)

* Discussion (vada)

* Wrangling (jalpa)

* Cavil (vitanda)

* Fallacy (hetvabhasa)

* Quibble (Chala)

* A point of defeat (nigrahasthana)}}There is, first, the state of '''Samsaya''' or doubt about the point to be discussed. Next comes the '''Prayojana''' or motive for discussing it. Next follows a '''Drishtanta''' or example, which leads to the '''Siddhanta''' or established conclusion. Then comes the objector with his '''Avayava''' or argument, split up into five members. Next follows the '''Tarka''' or refutation, and the '''Nirnaya''' or ascertainment of the true state of the case. A further '''Vada''' or controversy takes place, which leads to '''Jalpa''' or mere wrangling. This is followed by '''Vitanda''' or cavilling, '''Hetvabhasa''' or fallacious reasoning, and '''Nigraha-sthana''', the putting an end to all discussions by a demonstration of the objector's incapacity for argument.<ref name=":1" />

There is, first, the state of '''Samsaya''' or doubt about the point to be discussed. Next comes the '''Prayojana''' or motive for discussing it. Next follows a '''Drishtanta''' or example Which leads to the '''Siddhanta''' or established conclusion. Then comes the objector with his '''Avayava''' or argument, split up into five members. Next follows the '''Tarka''' or refutation, and the '''Nirnaya''' or ascertainment of the true state of the case. A further '''Vada''' or controversy takes place, which leads to '''Jalpa''' or mere wrangling. This is followed by '''Vitanda''' or cavilling, Hetvabhasa or fallacious reasoning, and Nigraha-sthana, the putting an end to all discussions by a demonstration of the objector's incapacity for argument.  

When one attains the true knowledge, his faults viz. affection (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish. Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. One must put an end to the chain which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and ends with pain. If false knowledge vanishes, faults disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity, consequent transmigration and pains.<ref name=":1" />   

When one attains the true knowledge, his faults viz. affection (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish.  Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. One must put an end to the chain which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and ends with pain. If false knowledge vanishes, faults disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity and consequent transmigration and pains.  

'''7. The State of Apavarga or Release'''

Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.<ref name=":1" />

 

 

Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.  

==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" />====

==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" />====

The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in Ishvara, plurality of Atman and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common, such as the padarthas.<ref name=":1" />

The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in Ishvara, plurality of Atman and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common, such as the padarthas.<ref name=":1" />