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The Self (defining which is based on the sampradaya) is not ordinarily realized by us because of its extreme fineness and minuteness. The Buddhi is to acquire microscopic vision (drsyate tvagryaya buddhya) through repeated acts of concentration if it is to have an intuition of the Self. The whole aim of Sadhana in the Indian traditions with its innumerable details (which seem very often useless and unmeaning) is to gradually educate the mind towards concentration. It enjoins rigid discipline, scrutiny in every action (from waking up in the morning till retiring in the night) and emphasizes upon minute and detailed regulation of life. It may appear meaningless or even absurd to many, however, such practices offer the required training to a novice whose mind takes interest in everything presented to it and diffuses its energy. It should be noted that many disciplinary practices are not enjoined for all, there are exemptions based on many factors including the capacities of different individuals. Shruti emphasized that the real Self can be attained through the mind and mind alone.<blockquote>मनसैवानुद्रष्टव्यं नेह नानास्ति किं चन । मृत्योः स मृत्युमाप्नोति य इह नानेव पश्यति। बृह. ४,४.१९ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 4.4.19)</blockquote>This Brahman must be realized by the mind alone after steady and constant reflection. In Brahman that is to be realized, there is no duality or diversity. He who sees here, as though it were many, goes from death to death (attains the cycles of samsara).<ref>Dr. N. S. Ananta Rangacharya (2004) ''Prinicipal Upanishads, Volume 3, Brhdaranyakopanishat. Text, English Translation and Brief notes according to Sri Ranga Ramanujamuni.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers (Pages 311)</ref>

The Self (defining which is based on the sampradaya) is not ordinarily realized by us because of its extreme fineness and minuteness. The Buddhi is to acquire microscopic vision (drsyate tvagryaya buddhya) through repeated acts of concentration if it is to have an intuition of the Self. The whole aim of Sadhana in the Indian traditions with its innumerable details (which seem very often useless and unmeaning) is to gradually educate the mind towards concentration. It enjoins rigid discipline, scrutiny in every action (from waking up in the morning till retiring in the night) and emphasizes upon minute and detailed regulation of life. It may appear meaningless or even absurd to many, however, such practices offer the required training to a novice whose mind takes interest in everything presented to it and diffuses its energy. It should be noted that many disciplinary practices are not enjoined for all, there are exemptions based on many factors including the capacities of different individuals. Shruti emphasized that the real Self can be attained through the mind and mind alone.<blockquote>मनसैवानुद्रष्टव्यं नेह नानास्ति किं चन । मृत्योः स मृत्युमाप्नोति य इह नानेव पश्यति। बृह. ४,४.१९ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 4.4.19)</blockquote>This Brahman must be realized by the mind alone after steady and constant reflection. In Brahman that is to be realized, there is no duality or diversity. He who sees here, as though it were many, goes from death to death (attains the cycles of samsara).<ref>Dr. N. S. Ananta Rangacharya (2004) ''Prinicipal Upanishads, Volume 3, Brhdaranyakopanishat. Text, English Translation and Brief notes according to Sri Ranga Ramanujamuni.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers (Pages 311)</ref>

The inwardly directed individual ''self'' perceives vaguely its latent infinitude and realizes gradually that its limitation and bondage are not inherent in its nature but are rather imposed on it, and wants somehow to shake them off and thus realise its full autonomy. Liberation or vimukti is identical with freedom, and freedom is expansion. It is the gross outward matter and contact with matter that have made the ''self'' appear limited. The deeper and deeper one dives into ''self'', the more of expansion, freedom and light does one feel and enjoy. This conscious urge of the finite to become more and more, expands till it realizes its infinitude - is what is really meant by mumukshutva (desire for liberation) which forms the unmistakable first step in the course of, Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />  

The inwardly directed individual ''self'' perceives vaguely its latent infinitude and realizes gradually that its limitation and bondage are not inherent in its nature but are rather imposed on it, and wants somehow to shake them off and thus realise its full autonomy. Liberation or vimukti is identical with freedom, and freedom is expansion. It is the gross outward matter and contact with matter that have made the ''self'' appear limited. The deeper and deeper one dives into ''self'', the more of expansion, freedom and light does one feel and enjoy. This conscious urge of the finite to become more and more, expands till it realizes its infinitude - is what is really meant by mumukshutva (desire for liberation) which forms the unmistakable first step in the course of, Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />

 

 

== Paths of Sadhana and Significance of Psychology ==

== Paths of Sadhana and Significance of Psychology ==

[[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] can be performed in different ways and as such broadly it involves either or both of the two paths - mental or physical, but the eventual change it brings about is in psychological status of the sadhaka.<ref name=":1" /> The main streams of Sadhana by a Jiva can be classified under

[[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] can be performed in different ways and as such broadly it involves either or both of the two paths - mental or physical, but the eventual change it brings about is in psychological status of the sadhaka.<ref name=":1" /> The main streams of Sadhana by a Jiva can be classified under

The Sadhaka has to begin with karma, that being perfectly suitable to the beginner who is not yet purified in body and mind. It is karma that purifies the mind of the Sadhaka and makes him fit for the acquisition of higher truths. Adishankaracharya stresses that <blockquote>अपेक्षते च विद्या सर्वाण्याश्रमकर्माणि नात्यन्तमनपेक्षैव। ...उत्पन्ना हि विद्या फलसिद्धिं प्रति न किंचिदन्यदपेक्षते उत्पत्तिं प्रति तु अपेक्षते (Shankara Bhashya on Brahma Sutras 3.4.26)</blockquote>Meaning: All karmas (yajnas and related rituals) are useful for origination of knowledge. Even the scriptures prescribe them as they serve an indirect means to the attainment of knowledge.<ref>Brahmasutras by Swami Sivananda (Shankaracharya's Bhashyam on [https://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_0/Brahma.Sutra.3.4.html सर्वापेक्षा च यज्ञादिश्रुतेर् अश्ववत् । ( ब्रसू-३,४.२६ । )]</ref>

The Sadhaka has to begin with karma, that being perfectly suitable to the beginner who is not yet purified in body and mind. It is karma that purifies the mind of the Sadhaka and makes him fit for the acquisition of higher truths. Adishankaracharya stresses that <blockquote>अपेक्षते च विद्या सर्वाण्याश्रमकर्माणि नात्यन्तमनपेक्षैव। ...उत्पन्ना हि विद्या फलसिद्धिं प्रति न किंचिदन्यदपेक्षते उत्पत्तिं प्रति तु अपेक्षते (Shankara Bhashya on Brahma Sutras 3.4.26)</blockquote>Meaning: All karmas (yajnas and related rituals) are useful for origination of knowledge. Even the scriptures prescribe them as they serve an indirect means to the attainment of knowledge.<ref>Brahmasutras by Swami Sivananda (Shankaracharya's Bhashyam on [https://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_0/Brahma.Sutra.3.4.html सर्वापेक्षा च यज्ञादिश्रुतेर् अश्ववत् । ( ब्रसू-३,४.२६ । )]</ref>

There is incompatibility of jnana and karma only when jnana had been reached and not before that stage. That each jnana and karma margas have their own place in a Sadhaka's life, is reinforced in Shrimad Bhagavadgita<blockquote>श्रेयान्द्रव्यमयाद्यज्ञाज्ज्ञानयज्ञः परन्तप । सर्वं कर्माखिलं पार्थ ज्ञाने परिसमाप्यते ॥ ४-३३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.33)</blockquote>Superior is Jnana yajna above Yajnas involving material offerings. All karmas (actions) in their entirety, O Partha, culminate in Knowledge (jnana).<ref name=":1" />  

There is incompatibility of jnana and karma only when jnana had been reached and not before that stage. That each jnana and karma margas have their own place in a Sadhaka's life, is reinforced in Shrimad Bhagavadgita<blockquote>श्रेयान्द्रव्यमयाद्यज्ञाज्ज्ञानयज्ञः परन्तप । सर्वं कर्माखिलं पार्थ ज्ञाने परिसमाप्यते ॥ ४-३३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.33)</blockquote>Superior is Jnana yajna above Yajnas involving material offerings. All karmas (actions) in their entirety, O Partha, culminate in Knowledge (jnana).<ref name=":1" />  

These couplets indicate the stage of preparation where moral excellence is strongly emphasized, and where the constant performance of holy deeds and the constant meditation of holy thoughts, purity of both body and mind, are urged to be absolutely essential. The prescribed good actions have to be performed mainly to divert the mind from evil as well as purifying it, ridding it of impurities and anxieties preparing it to rise above all desires (including the good desires).<ref name=":1" />

These couplets indicate the stage of preparation where moral excellence is strongly emphasized, and where the constant performance of holy deeds and the constant meditation of holy thoughts, purity of both body and mind, are urged to be absolutely essential. The prescribed good actions have to be performed mainly to divert the mind from evil as well as purifying it, ridding it of impurities and anxieties preparing it to rise above all desires (including the good desires).<ref name=":1" />

A daily routine consisting of physical activities (in the form of Yoga), followed by worship, prayer, reading the shastras etc., is followed merely because it is the prescribed by the shastras. Being a novice a Sadhaka does not fully grasp the spirit of these practices, but as the practice continues, they become pleasant and gets naturally attracted to the object of worship. Worship and the prescribed service become works of love, as they mean more than anything to the sadhaka at this stage. The stage of karma next gives place to the stage of bhakti or devotion, where a spontaneous and natural attraction for the object of worship characterizes the mental attitude of the Sadhaka. Thus, progress and development of every sort depends upon the harmonious working of both the active (karma) and the contemplative (jnana) aspects of the human nature.<ref name=":1" />

A daily routine consisting of physical activities (in the form of [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]]), followed by worship, prayer, reading the shastras etc., is followed merely because it is the prescribed by the shastras. Being a novice a Sadhaka does not fully grasp the spirit of these practices, but as the practice continues, they become pleasant and gets naturally attracted to the object of worship. Worship and the prescribed service become works of love, as they mean more than anything to the sadhaka at this stage. The stage of karma next gives place to the stage of bhakti or devotion, where a spontaneous and natural attraction for the object of worship characterizes the mental attitude of the Sadhaka. Thus, progress and development of every sort depends upon the harmonious working of both the active (karma) and the contemplative (jnana) aspects of the human nature.<ref name=":1" />

So long as the Sadhaka does not attain the experience of ''self'' all actions proceed from him as the subject and the agent, once it is directly realized, action ceases to proceed from him. All bodily movements do not cease as soon as desires cease, such a Jnani, a Jivanmukta still performs karma (prarabdha) without having attachment to its fruits. Neither are the operations of the bodily organs such as eyes, ears etc., nor the mental operations blocked from performing their karma.<ref name=":1" />  

So long as the Sadhaka does not attain the experience of ''self'' all actions proceed from him as the subject and the agent, once it is directly realized, action ceases to proceed from him. All bodily movements do not cease as soon as desires cease, such a Jnani, a Jivanmukta still performs karma (prarabdha) without having attachment to its fruits. Neither are the operations of the bodily organs such as eyes, ears etc., nor the mental operations blocked from performing their karma.<ref name=":1" />  

Psychologically, we find that insatiability of desires (kama) is the root cause of the miseries of the world. The concepts of deprivation or contentment are parameters by which a person's level of satisfaction is determined. A common observation in this connection is that people often choose the context of comparison that makes them “feel good” in comparison. Yet, paradoxically, the theory of relative deprivation suggests that more often than not the tendency to compare ourselves with those up on the ladder drives our desires and worldly expansion.

Psychologically, we find that '''insatiability of desires''' (kama) is the root cause of the miseries of the world. The concepts of deprivation or contentment are parameters by which a person's level of satisfaction is determined. A common observation in this connection is that people often choose the context of comparison that makes them “feel good” in comparison. Yet, paradoxically, the theory of relative deprivation suggests that more often than not the tendency to compare ourselves with those up on the ladder drives our desires and worldly expansion.

===Jnana Marga - Atmopasana, Aparokshanubhuti and Ananda===

===Jnana Marga - Atmopasana, Aparokshanubhuti and Ananda===

#तत्त्वज्ञानार्थदर्शनम् ॥ Contemplation (on the goal) for the attainment of knowledge of the truth

#तत्त्वज्ञानार्थदर्शनम् ॥ Contemplation (on the goal) for the attainment of knowledge of the truth

===Bhakti Marga===

===Bhakti Marga===

All the Bhakti schools agree in thinking that the Absolute cannot be reached by knowledge alone, as the Jnanavadins hold. They regard devotion (bhakti) as the essential and the most effective means to the realization of Self/God.<ref name=":2">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 228 - 230)</ref> According to Shri. Ramanujacharya, the Mundakopanishad mantra has the following purport<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>नायमात्मा प्रवचनेन लभ्यो न मेधया न बहुना श्रुतेन । यमेवैष वृणुते तेन लभ्यस्तस्यैष आत्मा विवृणुते तनूं स्वाम् ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 3.2.3 and Kath. Upan. 1.2.23)</blockquote>Summary: The ''self'' is not attained by studying the Vedic texts (pravachana), by mere ratiocination (by the intellect) nor by mere listening (by hearing). He who seeks Atman-by him alone is Atman attained. It is Atman that reveals to the chosen seeker Its true nature.

All the [[Bhakti (भक्तिः)|Bhakti]] schools agree in thinking that the Absolute cannot be reached by knowledge alone, as the Jnanavadins hold. They regard devotion (bhakti) as the essential and the most effective means to the realization of Self/God. According to Shri. Ramanujacharya, the Mundakopanishad mantra has the following purport<ref name=":2">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 228 - 230)</ref><blockquote>नायमात्मा प्रवचनेन लभ्यो न मेधया न बहुना श्रुतेन । यमेवैष वृणुते तेन लभ्यस्तस्यैष आत्मा विवृणुते तनूं स्वाम् ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 3.2.3 and Kath. Upan. 1.2.23)</blockquote>Summary: The ''self'' is not attained by studying the Vedic texts (pravachana), by mere ratiocination (by the intellect) nor by mere listening (by hearing). He who seeks Atman-by him alone is Atman attained. It is Atman that reveals to the chosen seeker Its true nature.

 

प्रियतम एव हि वरणीयो भवति । He who is dearest is selected (Sribhashyam), and that those who are joyfully devoted to Bhagavan are dear unto Him is expressed by Bhagavan Himself.<blockquote>समोऽहं सर्वभूतेषु न मे द्वेष्योऽस्ति न प्रियः । ये भजन्ति तु मां भक्त्या मयि ते तेषु चाप्यहम् ॥ ९-२९॥ (Bhag. Gita. 9.29)</blockquote>Meaning: The same am I to all beings, to Me there is none hateful nor dear; but those who worship Me with devotion, are in Me and I am also in them.<ref>Shrimad Bhagavad Gita ([https://shlokam.org/bhagavad-gita/9-29/ Adhyaya 9 Shloka 29])</ref>

प्रियतम एव हि वरणीयो भवति । He who is dearest is selected (Sribhashyam), and that those who are joyfully devoted to Bhagavan are dear unto Him is expressed by Bhagavan Himself.<blockquote>समोऽहं सर्वभूतेषु न मे द्वेष्योऽस्ति न प्रियः । ये भजन्ति तु मां भक्त्या मयि ते तेषु चाप्यहम् ॥ ९-२९॥ (Bhag. Gita. 9.29)</blockquote>Meaning: The same am I to all beings, to Me there is none hateful nor dear; but those who worship Me with devotion, are in Me and I am also in them.<ref>Shrimad Bhagavad Gita ([https://shlokam.org/bhagavad-gita/9-29/ Adhyaya 9 Shloka 29])</ref>

==== How is Bhakti developed? ====

==== How is Bhakti developed? ====

Bhakti is of two kinds namely Samanya Bhakti and Para Bhakti. Samanya Bhakti is common to all and is essential for everything. This is verily the foundation of all Sadhanas and makes the aspirant grow in strength and ultimately leads him on to Supreme Bhakti or Parabhakti, which is the means to Mukti. Without that intense feeling of devotion one cannot be first of all a successful Karmayogin, and then a Jnanayogin.<ref name=":3">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 328 - 354)</ref>

While [[Bhakti (भक्तिः)|Bhakti]] is classified in many ways, two kinds namely Samanya Bhakti and Parabhakti are used in the present context. Samanya Bhakti is common to all and is essential for everything. The Bhakti tradition identifies [[Navavidha Bhakti (नवविधाभक्तिः)|nine forms of expression of bhakti]]. This is verily the foundation of all Sadhanas and makes the aspirant grow in strength and ultimately leads him on to Supreme Bhakti or Parabhakti, which is the means to Mukti. Without that intense feeling of devotion one cannot be first of all a successful Karmayogin, and then a Jnanayogin.<ref name=":3">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 328 - 354)</ref>

A bhakta progresses steadily from an Atmakama to transform himself into Bhagavatkama, owing to the divine prasada (Grace). Bhagavan grants the necessary Buddhiyoga to His Bhaktas, with which they attain Him, and enjoy, for ever, the rapture of His communion. Here the Sadhana includes eternal constancy, concentration of mind (on Bhagavan alone), intense love, anurakta (attraction) towards Him, virakta (renunciation) towards things of the world and firm determination. The attainment of Tattvajnana is the first step which is to be obtained through Samanyabhakti. After the true knowledge of the Supreme Vasudeva is obtained, the love of the aspirant for the deity becomes intensified and he cannot bear to live without reflecting upon Him, without His vision. This state of intense eagerness for Divine experience is Parabhakti, or Supreme love of God, and this is declared as the direct means to Mukti.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>सर्वं तं परादात् योऽन्यत्रात्मनः सर्वं वेद। (Brhd. Upan. 6.3.5)</blockquote>

A bhakta progresses steadily from an Atmakama to transform himself into Bhagavatkama, owing to the divine prasada (Grace). Bhagavan grants the necessary Buddhiyoga to His Bhaktas, with which they attain Him, and enjoy, for ever, the rapture of His communion. Here the Sadhana includes eternal constancy, concentration of mind (on Bhagavan alone), intense love, anurakta (attraction) towards Him, virakta (renunciation) towards things of the world and firm determination. The attainment of Tattvajnana is the first step which is to be obtained through Samanyabhakti. After the true knowledge of the Supreme Vasudeva is obtained, the love of the aspirant for the deity becomes intensified and he cannot bear to live without reflecting upon Him, without His vision. This state of intense eagerness for Divine experience is Parabhakti, or Supreme love of God, and this is declared as the direct means to Mukti.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>सर्वं तं परादात् योऽन्यत्रात्मनः सर्वं वेद। (Brhd. Upan. 6.3.5)</blockquote>

==== Psychological aspects of Sadhana in Bhaktiyoga ====

==== Psychological aspects of Sadhana in Bhaktiyoga ====

The aspirant here reflects upon the deity as his own Antaryamin. Self-surrender or Prapatti at the feet of the deity is necessary for commencing, perfecting, and completing Bhaktiyoga. Here this self-surrender is called the Anga Prapatti or a factor which, helps the main means. '''Parabhakti''' leads to the state of '''Parajnanam''', signifying the visual perception of Bhagavan, which further on leads to '''Paramabhakti''', the highest stage of love which is unsurpassed, and which lasts for ever, and this is communion with the deity.<ref name=":3" /> A seven-fold moral and spiritual discipline, [[Sadhana Saptaka (साधनसप्तकम्)]] has been prescribed by SriRamanujacharya. They are, (1) discrimination, (2) controlling the passions, (3) Practice, (4) Sacrificial work ; (5) Purity; (6) Strength and (7) Suppression of excessive joy.<ref name=":4" />

The aspirant here reflects upon the deity as his own Antaryamin. Self-surrender or Prapatti at the feet of the deity is necessary for commencing, perfecting, and completing Bhaktiyoga. Here this self-surrender is called the Anga Prapatti or a factor which, helps the main means. '''Parabhakti''' leads to the state of '''Parajnanam''', signifying the visual perception of Bhagavan, which further on leads to '''Paramabhakti''', the highest stage of love which is unsurpassed, and which lasts for ever, and this is communion with the deity.<ref name=":3" /> A seven-fold moral and spiritual discipline, [[Sadhana Saptaka (साधनसप्तकम्)]] has been prescribed by SriRamanujacharya as a prerequisite to spiritual development. They are, (1) discrimination, (2) controlling the passions, (3) Practice, (4) Sacrificial work ; (5) Purity; (6) Strength and (7) Suppression of excessive joy.<ref name=":4" />

To summarize, Visishtadvaita school has expounded the following processes of development of Parabhakti, in its scheme of sadhana:<ref name=":4">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 296 - 298)</ref>

To summarize, Visishtadvaita school has expounded the following processes of development of Parabhakti, in its scheme of sadhana:<ref name=":4">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 296 - 298)</ref>