Changes

The course of discipline or Sadhana strengthens the finite consciousness step after step and gradually unfolds the infinitude that was all along latent in the same. Sadhana, is completed when no foreign element, no matter, no ‘other,’ remains as an unresolved contradiction or opposition, and when the ''self'' has established its sovereignty not by opposing itself to matter, but by resolving matter completely unto itself.<ref>Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Page 46-48)</ref>

The course of discipline or Sadhana strengthens the finite consciousness step after step and gradually unfolds the infinitude that was all along latent in the same. Sadhana, is completed when no foreign element, no matter, no ‘other,’ remains as an unresolved contradiction or opposition, and when the ''self'' has established its sovereignty not by opposing itself to matter, but by resolving matter completely unto itself.<ref>Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Page 46-48)</ref>

== Paths of Sadhana and Significance for Psychology ==

== Paths of Sadhana and Significance of Psychology ==

[[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] can be performed in different ways and as such broadly it involves either or both of the two paths - mental or physical, but the eventual change it brings about is in psychological status of the sadhaka.<ref name=":1" /> The main streams of Sadhana by a Jiva can be classified under

[[Sadhana (साधनम्)|Sadhana]] can be performed in different ways and as such broadly it involves either or both of the two paths - mental or physical, but the eventual change it brings about is in psychological status of the sadhaka.<ref name=":1" /> The main streams of Sadhana by a Jiva can be classified under

Concept of Jiva provides the fundamental rationale for the basic subject matter of psychology studying consciousness, mind and body and the trilogy of cognition, affect or emotion, and volition or willed action. In his historical analysis of the background of modern psychology Hilgard (1980) has shown how cognition, emotion and volition, or the “trilogy of the mind” as he puts it, became the core subject matter of psychology during the nineteenth century. A similar trilogical focus is an integral part of the Indian approach to psychology. Thus, jñāna-, bhakti-, and karma-yoga, the three main forms of “applied psychology” in the Indian tradition involve the systematic modification of the three basic capacities of the jīva, namely thinking, emotion, and action, all of which aim at complete transformation of the person’s consciousness leading to higher states, while Patañjali’s yoga, often called the dhyāna yoga aims at doing the same by controlling the stream of thought processes.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 153)</ref>

Concept of Jiva provides the fundamental rationale for the basic subject matter of psychology studying consciousness, mind and body and the trilogy of cognition, affect or emotion, and volition or willed action. In his historical analysis of the background of modern psychology Hilgard (1980) has shown how cognition, emotion and volition, or the “trilogy of the mind” as he puts it, became the core subject matter of psychology during the nineteenth century. A similar trilogical focus is an integral part of the Indian approach to psychology. Thus, jñāna-, bhakti-, and karma-yoga, the three main forms of “applied psychology” in the Indian tradition involve the systematic modification of the three basic capacities of the jīva, namely thinking, emotion, and action, all of which aim at complete transformation of the person’s consciousness leading to higher states, while Patañjali’s yoga, often called the dhyāna yoga aims at doing the same by controlling the stream of thought processes.<ref>Paranjpe, Anand. C. and Ramakrishna Rao, K. (2016) ''Psychology in the Indian Tradition.'' London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Page 153)</ref>

The development of the entire man is absolutely necessary, and this is attained by different men possessing different temperaments through the emphasis on either the active (karma marga) or the emotional (bhakti marga) or the intellectual side (jnana marga) of one’s nature.<ref name=":1" />

The development of the entire man is absolutely necessary, and this is attained by different men possessing different temperaments through the emphasis on either the active (karma marga) or the emotional (bhakti marga) or the intellectual side (jnana marga) of one’s nature. It is important to note that many elements required for Sadhana in any path involves the practice of eight-limbed yoga, or [[Ashtanga Yoga (अष्टाङ्गयोगः)|Ashtanga yoga]].<ref name=":1" />

=== Concerted Role of Various Paths of Sadhana ===

=== Concerted Role of Various Paths of Sadhana ===

According to Dr. Nalinikanta Brahma, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana may be regarded as disciplines suiting three different stages in the course of development of the Sadhaka. All controversy arises when this aspect of mutual co-operation is lost sight of, and undue importance or unmerited neglect is accorded to one or other of these aspects. Shrimad Bhagavata Purana, mentions that for a Sadhaka,<blockquote>तावत् कर्माणि कुर्वीत न निर्विद्येत यावता ।  मत्कथाश्रवणादौ वा श्रद्धा यावन्न जायते ॥ ९ ॥ (Bhag. Pura. 11.20.9)</blockquote>Summary: Karma has to be performed until one does not feel dissatisfied (towards it)  and after attaining a faith by listening to the divine stories etc., (either for bhakti or jnana), all karmas should be renounced.<ref name=":1" />

According to Dr. Nalinikanta Brahma, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana may be regarded as disciplines suiting three different stages in the course of development of the Sadhaka. All controversy arises when this aspect of mutual co-operation is lost sight of, and undue importance or unmerited neglect is accorded to one or other of these aspects. Shrimad Bhagavata Purana, mentions that for a Sadhaka,<blockquote>तावत् कर्माणि कुर्वीत न निर्विद्येत यावता ।  मत्कथाश्रवणादौ वा श्रद्धा यावन्न जायते ॥ ९ ॥ (Bhag. Pura. 11.20.9)</blockquote>Summary: Karma has to be performed until one does not feel dissatisfied (towards it)  and after attaining a faith by listening to the divine stories etc., (either for bhakti or jnana), all karmas should be renounced.<ref name=":1" />

Karma has very often been downplayed by the advocates of jnana and bhakti. Karma (specifically those proceeding from desires) and jnana are incompatibles, declare the advocates of Jnana-marga, as one is the result of ignorance (avidya) and the other involves true knowledge (vidya).  

Karma has very often been downplayed by the advocates of jnana and bhakti. Karma (specifically those proceeding from desires) and jnana are incompatibles, declare the advocates of Jnana-marga, as one is the result of ignorance (avidya) and the other involves true knowledge (vidya).

===Karma Marga - Attainment of purification of sharira and manas===

===Karma Marga - Attainment of purification of sharira and manas===

The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] and [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|Smrtis]] use the term to mean such actions as daily worship (sandhya etc.), fixed religious observances, fastings, etc., and divide all such karmas into three groups, viz., nitya, naimittika, and kamya based on the periodicity and goal of such actions. Such mental processes as meditation and reflection (dhyana and vichara) are generally excluded from the province of Karma by the Vedantists, though not accepted by some scholars.<ref name=":1">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 91- 116)</ref>

The [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]] and [[Smrti (स्मृतिः)|Smrtis]] use the term to mean such actions as daily worship (sandhya etc.), fixed religious observances, fastings, etc., and divide all such karmas into three groups, viz., nitya, naimittika, and kamya based on the periodicity and goal of such actions. Such mental processes as meditation and reflection (dhyana and vichara) are generally excluded from the province of Karma by the Vedantists, though not accepted by some scholars.<ref name=":1">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 91- 116)</ref>

The Sadhaka has to begin with karma, that being perfectly suitable to the beginner who is not yet purified in body and mind. It is karma that purifies the mind of the Sadhaka and makes him fit for the acquisition of higher truths. Adishankaracharya stresses that <blockquote>अपेक्षते च विद्या सर्वाण्याश्रमकर्माणि नात्यन्तमनपेक्षैव। ...उत्पन्ना हि विद्या फलसिद्धिं प्रति न किंचिदन्यदपेक्षते उत्पत्तिं प्रति तु अपेक्षते (Shankara Bhashya on Brahma Sutras 3.4.26)</blockquote>All karmas (yajnas and related rituals) are useful for origination of knowledge. Even the scriptures prescribe them as they serve an indirect means to the attainment of knowledge.<ref>Brahmasutras by Swami Sivananda (Shankaracharya's Bhashyam on [https://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_0/Brahma.Sutra.3.4.html सर्वापेक्षा च यज्ञादिश्रुतेर् अश्ववत् । ( ब्रसू-३,४.२६ । )]</ref>

The Sadhaka has to begin with karma, that being perfectly suitable to the beginner who is not yet purified in body and mind. It is karma that purifies the mind of the Sadhaka and makes him fit for the acquisition of higher truths. Adishankaracharya stresses that <blockquote>अपेक्षते च विद्या सर्वाण्याश्रमकर्माणि नात्यन्तमनपेक्षैव। ...उत्पन्ना हि विद्या फलसिद्धिं प्रति न किंचिदन्यदपेक्षते उत्पत्तिं प्रति तु अपेक्षते (Shankara Bhashya on Brahma Sutras 3.4.26)</blockquote>Meaning: All karmas (yajnas and related rituals) are useful for origination of knowledge. Even the scriptures prescribe them as they serve an indirect means to the attainment of knowledge.<ref>Brahmasutras by Swami Sivananda (Shankaracharya's Bhashyam on [https://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_0/Brahma.Sutra.3.4.html सर्वापेक्षा च यज्ञादिश्रुतेर् अश्ववत् । ( ब्रसू-३,४.२६ । )]</ref>

There is incompatibility of jnana and karma only when jnana had been reached and not before that stage. That each jnana and karma margas have their own place in a Sadhaka's life, is reinforced in Shrimad Bhagavadgita<blockquote>श्रेयान्द्रव्यमयाद्यज्ञाज्ज्ञानयज्ञः परन्तप । सर्वं कर्माखिलं पार्थ ज्ञाने परिसमाप्यते ॥ ४-३३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.33)</blockquote>Superior is Jnana yajna above Yajnas involving material offerings. All karmas (actions) in their entirety, O Partha, culminate in Knowledge (jnana).<ref name=":1" />  

There is incompatibility of jnana and karma only when jnana had been reached and not before that stage. That each jnana and karma margas have their own place in a Sadhaka's life, is reinforced in Shrimad Bhagavadgita<blockquote>श्रेयान्द्रव्यमयाद्यज्ञाज्ज्ञानयज्ञः परन्तप । सर्वं कर्माखिलं पार्थ ज्ञाने परिसमाप्यते ॥ ४-३३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 4.33)</blockquote>Superior is Jnana yajna above Yajnas involving material offerings. All karmas (actions) in their entirety, O Partha, culminate in Knowledge (jnana).<ref name=":1" />  

These couplets indicate the stage of preparation where moral excellence is strongly emphasized, and where the constant performance of holy deeds and the constant meditation of holy thoughts, purity of both body and mind, are urged to be absolutely essential. The prescribed good actions have to be performed mainly to divert the mind from evil as well as purifying it, ridding it of impurities and anxieties preparing it to rise above all desires (including the good desires).<ref name=":1" />

These couplets indicate the stage of preparation where moral excellence is strongly emphasized, and where the constant performance of holy deeds and the constant meditation of holy thoughts, purity of both body and mind, are urged to be absolutely essential. The prescribed good actions have to be performed mainly to divert the mind from evil as well as purifying it, ridding it of impurities and anxieties preparing it to rise above all desires (including the good desires).<ref name=":1" />

A daily routine consisting of physical activities (in the form of Yoga), followed by worship, prayer, reading the shastras etc., is followed merely because it is the prescribed by the shastras. Being a novice a Sadhaka does not fully grasp the spirit of these practices, but as the practice continues, they become pleasant and gets naturally attracted to the object of worship. Worship and the prescribed service become works of love, as they mean more than anything to the sadhaka at this stage. The stage of karma next gives place to the stage of bhakti or devotion, where a spontaneous and natural attraction for the object of worship characterizes the mental attitude of the Sadhaka. Thus, progress and development of every sort depends upon the harmonious working of both the active (karma) and the contemplative (jnana) aspects of the human nature. <ref name=":1" />

A daily routine consisting of physical activities (in the form of Yoga), followed by worship, prayer, reading the shastras etc., is followed merely because it is the prescribed by the shastras. Being a novice a Sadhaka does not fully grasp the spirit of these practices, but as the practice continues, they become pleasant and gets naturally attracted to the object of worship. Worship and the prescribed service become works of love, as they mean more than anything to the sadhaka at this stage. The stage of karma next gives place to the stage of bhakti or devotion, where a spontaneous and natural attraction for the object of worship characterizes the mental attitude of the Sadhaka. Thus, progress and development of every sort depends upon the harmonious working of both the active (karma) and the contemplative (jnana) aspects of the human nature.<ref name=":1" />

So long as the Sadhaka does not attain the experience of ''self'' all actions proceed from him as the subject and the agent, once it is directly realized, action ceases to proceed from him. All bodily movements do not cease as soon as desires cease, such a Jnani, a Jivanmukta still performs karma (prarabdha) without having attachment to its fruits. Neither are the operations of the bodily organs such as eyes, ears etc., nor the mental operations blocked from performing their karma.<ref name=":1" />  

So long as the Sadhaka does not attain the experience of ''self'' all actions proceed from him as the subject and the agent, once it is directly realized, action ceases to proceed from him. All bodily movements do not cease as soon as desires cease, such a Jnani, a Jivanmukta still performs karma (prarabdha) without having attachment to its fruits. Neither are the operations of the bodily organs such as eyes, ears etc., nor the mental operations blocked from performing their karma.<ref name=":1" />  

#नित्यं च समचित्तत्वमिष्टानिष्टोपपत्तिषु ॥ constancy in a balanced manas or citta (or mind) or having equanimity of the mind in attainment of favorable or unfavorable consequences

#नित्यं च समचित्तत्वमिष्टानिष्टोपपत्तिषु ॥ constancy in a balanced manas or citta (or mind) or having equanimity of the mind in attainment of favorable or unfavorable consequences

#विविक्तदेशसेवित्वमरतिर्जनसंसदि ॥ preferring solitude having no desire to associate with people

#विविक्तदेशसेवित्वमरतिर्जनसंसदि ॥ preferring solitude having no desire to associate with people

#मयि चानन्ययोगेन भक्तिरव्यभिचारिणी ॥ unwavering offering of unalloyed devotion to kRSNa

#मयि चानन्ययोगेन भक्तिरव्यभिचारिणी ॥ unwavering offering of unalloyed devotion to ShriKrishna

#अध्यात्मज्ञाननित्यत्वम् ॥ Constant dwelling on the knowledge pertaining to the Self

#अध्यात्मज्ञाननित्यत्वम् ॥ Constant dwelling on the knowledge pertaining to the Self

#तत्त्वज्ञानार्थदर्शनम् ॥ Contemplation (on the goal) for the attainment of knowledge of the truth

#तत्त्वज्ञानार्थदर्शनम् ॥ Contemplation (on the goal) for the attainment of knowledge of the truth

===Bhakti Marga===

===Bhakti Marga===

All the Bhakti schools agree in thinking that the Absolute cannot be reached by knowledge alone, as the Jnanavadins hold. They regard devotion (bhakti) as the essential and the most effective means to the realization of Self/God.<ref name=":2">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 228 - 230)</ref> According to Shri. Ramanujacharya, the Mundakopanishad mantra has the following purport<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>नायमात्मा प्रवचनेन लभ्यो न मेधया न बहुना श्रुतेन ।

All the Bhakti schools agree in thinking that the Absolute cannot be reached by knowledge alone, as the Jnanavadins hold. They regard devotion (bhakti) as the essential and the most effective means to the realization of Self/God.<ref name=":2">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 228 - 230)</ref> According to Shri. Ramanujacharya, the Mundakopanishad mantra has the following purport<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>नायमात्मा प्रवचनेन लभ्यो न मेधया न बहुना श्रुतेन । यमेवैष वृणुते तेन लभ्यस्तस्यैष आत्मा विवृणुते तनूं स्वाम् ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 3.2.3 and Kath. Upan. 1.2.23)</blockquote>Summary: The ''self'' is not attained by studying the Vedic texts (pravachana), by mere ratiocination (by the intellect) nor by mere listening (by hearing). He who seeks Atman-by him alone is Atman attained. It is Atman that reveals to the chosen seeker Its true nature.

 

यमेवैष वृणुते तेन लभ्यस्तस्यैष आत्मा विवृणुते तनूं स्वाम् ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 3.2.3 and Kath. Upan. 1.2.23)</blockquote>Summary: The ''self'' is not attained by studying the Vedic texts (pravachana), by mere ratiocination (by the intellect) nor by mere listening (by hearing). He who seeks Atman-by him alone is Atman attained. It is Atman that reveals to the chosen seeker Its true nature.

प्रियतम एव हि वरणीयो भवति । He who is dearest is selected (Sribhashyam), and that those who are joyfully devoted to Bhagavan are dear unto Him is expressed by Bhagavan Himself.<blockquote>समोऽहं सर्वभूतेषु न मे द्वेष्योऽस्ति न प्रियः । ये भजन्ति तु मां भक्त्या मयि ते तेषु चाप्यहम् ॥ ९-२९॥ (Bhag. Gita. 9.29)</blockquote>Meaning: The same am I to all beings, to Me there is none hateful nor dear; but those who worship Me with devotion, are in Me and I am also in them.<ref>Shrimad Bhagavad Gita ([https://shlokam.org/bhagavad-gita/9-29/ Adhyaya 9 Shloka 29])</ref>

प्रियतम एव हि वरणीयो भवति । He who is dearest is selected (Sribhashyam), and that those who are joyfully devoted to Bhagavan are dear unto Him is expressed by Bhagavan Himself.<blockquote>समोऽहं सर्वभूतेषु न मे द्वेष्योऽस्ति न प्रियः । ये भजन्ति तु मां भक्त्या मयि ते तेषु चाप्यहम् ॥ ९-२९॥ (Bhag. Gita. 9.29)</blockquote>Meaning: The same am I to all beings, to Me there is none hateful nor dear; but those who worship Me with devotion, are in Me and I am also in them.<ref>Shrimad Bhagavad Gita ([https://shlokam.org/bhagavad-gita/9-29/ Adhyaya 9 Shloka 29])</ref>

A bhakta progresses steadily from an Atmakama to transform himself into Bhagavatkama, owing to the divine prasada (Grace). Bhagavan grants the necessary Buddhiyoga to His Bhaktas, with which they attain Him, and enjoy, for ever, the rapture of His communion. Here the Sadhana includes eternal constancy, concentration of mind (on Bhagavan alone), intense love, anurakta (attraction) towards Him, virakta (renunciation) towards things of the world and firm determination. The attainment of Tattvajnana is the first step which is to be obtained through Samanyabhakti. After the true knowledge of the Supreme Vasudeva is obtained, the love of the aspirant for the deity becomes intensified and he cannot bear to live without reflecting upon Him, without His vision. This state of intense eagerness for Divine experience is Parabhakti, or Supreme love of God, and this is declared as the direct means to Mukti.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>सर्वं तं परादात् योऽन्यत्रात्मनः सर्वं वेद। (Brhd. Upan. 6.3.5)</blockquote>

A bhakta progresses steadily from an Atmakama to transform himself into Bhagavatkama, owing to the divine prasada (Grace). Bhagavan grants the necessary Buddhiyoga to His Bhaktas, with which they attain Him, and enjoy, for ever, the rapture of His communion. Here the Sadhana includes eternal constancy, concentration of mind (on Bhagavan alone), intense love, anurakta (attraction) towards Him, virakta (renunciation) towards things of the world and firm determination. The attainment of Tattvajnana is the first step which is to be obtained through Samanyabhakti. After the true knowledge of the Supreme Vasudeva is obtained, the love of the aspirant for the deity becomes intensified and he cannot bear to live without reflecting upon Him, without His vision. This state of intense eagerness for Divine experience is Parabhakti, or Supreme love of God, and this is declared as the direct means to Mukti.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>सर्वं तं परादात् योऽन्यत्रात्मनः सर्वं वेद। (Brhd. Upan. 6.3.5)</blockquote>

==== Scheme of Sadhana in Bhaktiyoga ====

==== Psychological aspects of Sadhana in Bhaktiyoga ====

The aspirant here reflects upon the deity as his own Antaryamin. Self-surrender or Prapatti at the feet of the deity is necessary for commencing, perfecting, and completing Bhaktiyoga. Here this self-surrender is called the Anga Prapatti or a factor which, helps the main means. '''Parabhakti''' leads to the state of '''Parajnanam''', signifying the visual perception of Bhagavan, which further on leads to '''Paramabhakti''', the highest stage of love which is unsurpassed, and which lasts for ever, and this is communion with the deity.<ref name=":3" />

The aspirant here reflects upon the deity as his own Antaryamin. Self-surrender or Prapatti at the feet of the deity is necessary for commencing, perfecting, and completing Bhaktiyoga. Here this self-surrender is called the Anga Prapatti or a factor which, helps the main means. '''Parabhakti''' leads to the state of '''Parajnanam''', signifying the visual perception of Bhagavan, which further on leads to '''Paramabhakti''', the highest stage of love which is unsurpassed, and which lasts for ever, and this is communion with the deity.<ref name=":3" /> A seven-fold moral and spiritual discipline, [[Sadhana Saptaka (साधनसप्तकम्)]] has been prescribed by SriRamanujacharya. They are, (1) discrimination, (2) controlling the passions, (3) Practice, (4) Sacrificial work ; (5) Purity; (6) Strength and (7) Suppression of excessive joy.<ref name=":4" />

To summarize, Visishtadvaita school has expounded the following processes of development of Parabhakti, in its scheme of sadhana:<ref>Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 296 - 298)</ref>

To summarize, Visishtadvaita school has expounded the following processes of development of Parabhakti, in its scheme of sadhana:<ref name=":4">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 296 - 298)</ref>

# Samanya Bhakti, or Love of the Lord, which is caused by close association with the Satvikas and the study of the scriptures.

# Samanya Bhakti, or Love of the Lord, which is caused by close association with the Satvikas and the study of the scriptures.

# The aspirant should arrest his mind from all outward tendencies. Discarding Raga and Dvesa that originate from the contact of the objects of the senses, he must withdraw himself to a secluded place convenient for meditation.

# The aspirant should arrest his mind from all outward tendencies. Discarding Raga and Dvesa that originate from the contact of the objects of the senses, he must withdraw himself to a secluded place convenient for meditation.

# Perform Karmayoga by controlling and regulating the activities of his mind, body and speech conducive to meditation.

# Perform Karmayoga by controlling and regulating the activities of his mind, body and speech conducive to meditation.

# Engage in Dhyana yoga

# Engage in Dhyana yoga continuously, developing an attitude of vairagya (dispassion) in everything except object of meditation.

== References ==

== References ==

<references />

<references />

[[Category:Vedanta]]

[[Category:Vedanta]]